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By Mara Schechter

살충제는 비싸고 종종 인간의 건강과 환경에 해를 끼친다. 개발도상국에서 농민들은 때로 보호장구 없이 독성 화학물질을 사용하다가 건강문제를 일으킨다. 그리고 때로는 해충이 살충제에 내성을 갖게 되어 더 많은 양의 —그리고 효과가 떨어지는— 살충제를 쓰게 된다. 


프로젝트의 연구자들은 우간다 농민들에게 현장 실험을 통하여 IPM의 방법이 살충제를 쓰는 것보다 "더 좋고, 안전하고, 값싸다"는 것을 보여주었다. (Photo credit: Shanidov)


이러한 문제를 해결하고자,  미국 국제개발처(USAID)의 지원을 받고 Virginia Tech의 Office of International Research, Education, and Development (OIRED)의 관리를 받는 통합 해충관리 공동연구지원 프로그램(IPM CRSP)은 인간이나 지구에 해를 주지 않고서 해충에 의한 손실을 줄이는 방법을 찾고자 농민, 대학 들과 함께 작업했다.

USAID, IPM CRSP에 의해 설정된 여덞 가지 공동연구지원 프로그램의 하나는 대안농업의 접근법인 통합 해충관리(IPM)의 채택을 확산하기 위하여 33개국에서 연구와 교육을 지원한다. 

통합 해충관리는 해충이 재생산되는 기회를 줄이고자 "숙주가 없는 시기"에 몇 개월 동안 재배를 기다리고, 해충 저항성 작물 품종을 심고, 익충과 같은 유기적 통제를 사용하는 등 화학적 투입재를 줄이기 위한 다양한 방법을 포함한다. 아주 필요한 경우 농민은 임시로 저독성 농약을 쓰기도 한다.

IPM CRSP에게 지원받는 프로그램에서, 미국의 연구자는 지역의 과학자, 대학, 농민에게 IPM에 관한 지식과 기술을 전수한다. 예를 들어 우간다 Kampala에서, IPM CRSP는 Makerere 대학에서 토마토 재배자들에게 어떻게 살충제 사용을 75%까지 줄이는지 보여주기 위하여 지역의 과학자들과 함께 일했다.

토마토는 우간다에서 가장 고부가가치의 돈벌이작물로서 지역에서 소비하고, 농민들은 다른 어떤 작물보다 토마토에 일반적으로 살충제를 사용한다. 지역 농민에게 지역의 기술과 문제에 대해 배움으로써, IPM CRSP 연구자들은 두 가지 해충이 토마토 재배자에게 중요한 문제를 일으킨다는 것을 알아냈다: 토마토 잎을 먹는 벌레인 파총채벌레(onion thrips)와 1845년 아일랜드에 감자 기근을 일으켰던 역병인 잎마름병(late blight).

프로젝트의 연구자들은 우간다 농민들에게 현장실험과 현지조사를 통해 IPM 방법이 농약을 치는 것보다 “더 좋고, 안전하고, 값싸다”는 걸 보여줬다.  

채벌레의 개체수를 관찰하고 더 효율적인 살충제 응용을 타겟팅하여, 농민이 어떻게 노란 접착 덫을 사용할지 보여주었다. IPM CRSP는 또한 농민에게 잎마름병 저항성 토마토 품종을 제공하고, 격자구조와 지주를 이용해 토마토를 땅에서 떨어지도록 하여 습한 곳에서 세균이 자라는 걸 줄임으로써 잎마름병을 통제하도록 도왔다. 

현재 농민들은 더 적은 농약을 사용할 뿐만 아니라, 살충제 사용을 73%까지 줄이고 더 많은 수확량으로 1년에 200%의 소득을 더 올린다. 그리고 지금 그들은 이러한 변화가 자신의 생활과 생태계를 강화하는 걸 계속 지켜보고 있다. 


Mara Schechter is a media intern with the Nourishing the Planet Project.


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When Silent Spring was published in 1962, author Rachel Carson was subjected to vicious personal assaults that had nothing do with the science or the merits of pesticide use. Those attacks find a troubling parallel today in the campaigns against climate scientists who point to evidence of a rapidly warming world.

by frank graham jr.

Yes, the more things change, the more they stay the same. More than a century and a half after Darwin’s On the Origin of Species appeared, nearly half the adults in the United States still don’t believe that evolution happens. And 50 years after the 1962 publication of Silent Spring, naysayers still rage from long-entrenched positions of ignorance at Rachel Carson and her ground-breaking critique of pesticide use.

The parallels with today’s assault on climate science are striking. The personal, vitriolic attacks that were leveled at Carson are echoed today in the organized assault on the scientists who bring us uncontroverted evidence that greenhouse gases are rapidly warming the planet. But Carson savored a victory that today’s climate scientists have yet to taste — her book spurred concrete action to curtail the use of pesticides that were causing widespread harm.

Silent Spring Rachel Carson
Yale Collection of American Literature/Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library
Rachel Carson was the first female biologist ever hired at the U.S. Bureau of Fisheries.
I came to Carson’s book from a special angle. Several years after her death in 1964, her editor at Houghton Mifflin asked me to bring the history of the book’s publication up to date, and my work appeared in 1970 under the sibilant title, Since Silent Spring. Carson, I knew, was an unlikely target of controversy. She had been a marine biologist employed by what is now the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service. As the author of several beautifully written and highly acclaimed books about the sea, she was probably the best-known science writer in the world.

But by the late 1950s, Carson had grown uneasy about the poisoning of land and sea by the massive and indiscriminate post-war barrage of new pesticides against gypsy moths, cotton boll weevils, and other pest insects. A very private person, she was reluctant to speak out and, in fact, urged several other persuasive writers, including E. B. White, to take on the task of spreading the bad tidings.

Carson was already suffering from the cancer that would kill her. Yet, with her science background, she stepped in and labored for four years documenting how chemicals were destroying birds, fish, and other wildlife and tracking the mounting evidence of their long-term threats to living things. In style and content, she designed her book to reveal to the public the misuse of those poisons. She pointed out the failures to grasp biological principles that encouraged the spread of deadly chemicals through the open environment and described the resulting fiascoes and disasters. She suggested alternatives and called for intensive research into the effects of these chemicals on all forms of life, including humans.

In June 1962, The New Yorker published the first of three excerpts from her book, and Houghton Mifflin brought out Silent Spring itself in September. She had expected an attack on its content by representatives of the chemical industry and their political allies, but not the kind of virulence and personal animosity that materialized. In almost every case, the attacks were barren of scientific substance.

An official of the Nutrition Foundation contended that “publicists and the author’s adherents among the food faddists, health quacks and special interest groups are promoting her book as if it were scientifically irreproachable and written by a scientist.” Wrote the director of the New
I thought she was a spinster,’ one critic said of Carson. ‘What’s she so worried about genetics for?’
Jersey Department of Agriculture, “In any large scale pest program, we are immediately confronted with the objection of a vociferous, misinformed group of nature-balancing, organic gardening, bird-loving, unreasonable citizenry that has not been convinced of the important place of agricultural chemicals in our economy.” Other literature accused Carson variously of being “a priestess of nature,” “a bird-lover,” and a member of some mystical cult. An official with the Federal Pest Control Review Board drew laughter from his audience when he remarked, “I thought she was a spinster. What’s she so worried about genetics for?"

Such vitriol is much in evidence today as global warming skeptics and deniers ridicule, harass, and even threaten prominent climate scientists like Penn State’s Michael Mann. The scientifically groundless, magical thinking exhibited by Carson’s critics is repeated by the likes of the North Carolina state Senate, which recently passed a coastal management billthat prohibits even considering the possibility of future sea level rise.

As I began work on my follow-up to Carson’s book, I was puzzled at first by the luke-warm response, and sometimes the outright hostility, shown toSilent Spring by some legitimate scientists. I soon realized the practitioners of entomology at the time were largely predetermined defenders of lavish pesticide use. A big step in that process had taken place in the early 1950s, when the American Entomological Society consolidated with the American Association of Economic Entomologists.

Although the enlarged group included many biologists, they felt outnumbered by chemists, toxicologists, and others whose mission was simply to destroy insects. (“These people loathe insects,” a research biologist told me. “Their life is a crusade against them.”) By the time ofSilent Spring’s publication, the American Entomological Society listed Velsicol, Monsanto, Shell Chemical Company, and other chemical corporations among their “sustaining associates.” The society’s criticisms of Carson closely paralleled those of their associates in industry.

University biologists themselves became vulnerable to the pressure. Robert L. Rudd, a zoologist at the University of California, was writing a book about the effects of pesticides on the environment at the same time Carson 
Carson’s book is a carefully researched argument for what she passionately believed to be the public good.
was writing hers. The two scientists held similar ideas about the dangers posed by unrestrained chemical use. Impeccably scientific in his approach, Rudd nonetheless ran into trouble publishing his book (Pesticides and the Living Landscape). The manuscript went through endless reviews, before finally seeing publication in 1964. But at a price for Rudd: He lost a promotion, and was removed from his position at the California Agricultural Experiment Station.

In researching my book, I wrote to a prominent ecologist I knew at one of the country’s land grant colleges, which are closely associated with the agricultural industry. I asked him to expand on a paper he had published about the harmful effects of long-lasting pesticides on birds. He replied that he was too busy at the time to answer my queries in any detail. When I met him again several years later, he apologized for the brushoff, and sheepishly explained that he hadn’t wanted to jeopardize the position of his co-author (or himself, of course) by directly associating himself with a book about Rachel Carson.

For some scientists, it seems, Silent Spring was a polemic, a diatribe. It did not give both sides of the argument — as a scientist, her critics insisted, she ought to have presented both the pros and cons of extensive pesticide use. But that was just her point. Carson saw no reason to praise pesticide use as it was carried out at the time, for such promotional arguments had appeared for years in a stream of literature from chemical companies and associations, agricultural experiment stations, and the big land grant universities.

Silent Spring Rachel Carson
So Carson took up her cudgels. Her book is not a mathematical theorem. It is a carefully researched, precisely reasoned, and elegantly written argument for what she passionately believed to be the public good. It is a product of her social conscience, but not the diatribe that her critics complained about. She did not call for a ban on all pesticides, but mostly for the long-lasting chlorinated hydrocarbons such as DDT whose movement through the environment cannot be contained and whose residues, being fat soluble, are stored in animal tissues and recycled through food chains.

“It is not my contention that chemical insecticides should never be used,” she wrote. “I do contend that we have put poisonous and biologically potent chemicals indiscriminately into the hands of persons largely or wholly ignorant of their potential for harm... I contend, furthermore, that we have allowed these chemicals to be used with little or no advance investigation of their effects on soil, water, wildlife, or man himself.”

Despite a few minor errors in Carson’s work (for instance, that American robins faced extinction from pesticide use), leading biologists found Silent Spring persuasive. In the decade following her death, the U.S. banned DDT and some other chemicals for most uses, on the basis not only of her book but also of much subsequent research. Yet curiously the sniping at her continues today, sometimes with fierce intensity.

An ironic aspect of the assault on Carson’s legacy in recent years has been that it is no longer focused on science. Critics have replaced the old chestnuts attacking her professional competence with a new tack — political correctness. The more hysterical of her opponents, including notable climate change deniers such as the late novelist Michael Crichton, have even branded Carson “a mass murderess,” responsible for the deaths of millions of African children from malaria because her work led to a ban on DDT. They portray a white elite, careless of African lives.

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The Clean Water Act at 40: There’s Still Much Left to Do
The Clean Water Act of 1972, one of the boldest environmental laws ever enacted, turns 40 this year, with an impressive record of cleaning up America's waterways. But, as Paul Greenberg writes, from New York Harbor to Alaska’s Bristol Bay, key challenges remain.
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So, as with the global warming debate today, politics trumps science. In the byzantine mindset of right-wing think tanks, concerns about environmental health reflect a godless, anti-business, anti-American mind-set. These critics never mention the fact that DDT was banned in the U. S. and some other countries, but globally is still available; nor that, even whenSilent Spring first appeared, DDT’s importance against malaria had been greatly diminished because mosquitoes were evolving resistance to the chemical; nor that alternative pesticides, as well as drugs that attack the malaria parasite and bug nets, are more feasible than using DDT. Ironically, many of Carson’s bitterest critics are creationists, who deny the existence of the same evolution that shapes those insects and makes them pesticide resistant.

Such critics would have felt right at home in 1859, arguing that Darwin’s grandpa may have been an ape, but they themselves never evolved. Yet today’s extremists in universities, state legislatures, and Congress have figured out that bad science can’t win against good science. So whether the issue is pesticides or climate change, they have sought a public relations victory by muddying key scientific issues with character attacks and politics. 



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A growing number of rootworms are now able to devour genetically modified corn specifically designed by Monsanto to kill those same pests. A new study shows that while the biotech giant may triumph in Congress, it will never be able to outsmart nature.

Western corn rootworms have been able to harmlessly consume the genetically modified maize, a research paper published in the latest issue of the journal GM Crops & Food reveals. A 2010 sample of the rootworm population had an elevenfold survival rate on the genetically modified corn compared to a control population. That’s eight times more than the year before, when the resistant population was first identified. 

Experts are also noting that this year’s resistant rootworm populations are maturing earlier than expected. In fact, the time the bug’s larvae hatched was the earliest in decades.

The Western corn rootworm 'season' is underway at a pace earlier than I have experienced since I began studying this versatile insect as a graduate student in the late 1970s,” entomologist Mike Gray wrote in The Bulletin, a periodical issued by the University of Chicago’s Department of Crop Studies.

Studies in other states have also revealed that the rootworm population is becoming increasingly resistant to genetically modified corn. Last year, Iowa State University researcher Aaron Gassmann noted that a number of farmers reported discovering, much to their dismay, that a large number of rootworms survived after the consumption of their GM crops. Gassmann branded these pests “superbugs.” 

Farmers and food companies have increasingly been dependent on GM crops, and many have abandoned crop rotation, a practice that has been used to stave off pest infestations for centuries. Some have even gone as far as to ignore federal regulation, which require the GM corn plantations be accompanied by a small “refuge” of non-GM maize. 

The recent findings have potentially devastating ramifications for both farmers and consumers. Genetic maize plantation would easily come under attack from the swelling number of “superbugs,” resulting in dwindling harvest numbers for farmers. Ultimately, consumers will pay the price not only for corn, an essential product whose derivatives are used in a plethora of products ranging from yogurts to baby powder, but for other crops sold in the market. Rising corn prices would mean that more farmers would plant corn, despite the risks, and the yield for other crops would drop. That would drive prices for virtually all food items up, hitting hard on a population already smitten by ongoing economic difficulties.

Monsanto launched its anti-rootworm GM corm in 2003. The Cry3Bb1 protein, derived from the Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt.) bacterium, was inserted into the corn’s genetic code. The embedded protein was supposed to be fatal to all rootworms. 

The recent findings came days after Monsanto, along with other biotech companies, got a major boost from a congressional panel, which okayed the manufacture of GM crops despite pending legal challenges. Many of the lawsuits that Monsanto faces include assessments that its crops are unsafe for human consumption and affect the health of unborn children. 

Monsanto has also been an active plaintiff itself. Its primary targets include entities that seek to label GM foods, and small farmers, whom the biotech behemoth accuses of using genetically modified crops patented by Monsanto.


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왜 농업 문제에 접근할 때 과학만이 아닌 사회적, 경제적, 문화적 측면에서도 접근해야 하는지 잘 보여주는 글.

과학은 어떻게 이용해야 하는가, 새로운 과학기술은 어떻게 적용하고 접근해야 하는지... 




일리노이주 LaSalle County의 이러한 Bt 옥수수 식물은 넓적다리잎벌레 피해의 결과로 누락되었다. 아이오와주에서 넓적다리잎벌레 피해에 취약해지고 있는 여타의 Bt 식물처럼, 이러한 옥수수 식물은 해마다 똑같은 Bt 단백질을 나타내는 옥수수를 심은 밭에서 Cry3Bb1 Bt 단백질을 함유한다. Credit: Michael Gray












높은 옥수수 가격은 많은 재배자가 해마다 옥수수를 심고 옥수수 수확량을 최대화하기 위해 다른 곤충도 죽이는 기술인 농약을 과용하도록 이끌고 있다고 연구자들이 보고한다. 많은 사례에서, 통합해충관리의 근본 원칙을 위반하면서 농약이 필요한지 밭을 살피지도 않고 뿌린다. 그 결과 중서부 농업 지대의 많은 옥수수와 콩밭이 생물다양성의 불모지가 되고, 살아 남은 곤충들은 현재 농민들이 사용하는 몇몇 주요 벌레잡이 도구에 내성을 갖는다. 


일리노이대학 작물과학의 Michael Gray 교수와 그의 동료들은 2011년 7월 말부터 8월초까지 일리노이주의 47개 카운티에서 옥수수와 콩의 해충을 조사하고,  많은 카운티에서 일부 주요 곤충 해충의 밀도가 0이나 0에 가까워졌다는 것을 발견했다고 결론을 내렸다.


"난 22년 동안 이런 종류의 연구를 하면서 이런 일은 처음이다"라고 Gray 교수는 말했다. "곤충다양성의 관점에서, 그러한 밭의 대부분은 생물학적 불모지이다." 그는 심지어 서부의 옥수수 뿌리선충 성충(보통 늦여름에 옥수수밭에 알을 낳는)은 대개의 카운티에서 찾아보기가 힘들었다고 말했다.


부북적으로 이러한 적은 숫자는 지난 몇 년 동안의 환경 상태 -특히 습한 봄- 가 인한 결과라고 Gray 교수는 말했다. 그러나 하나나 그 이상의 살충 성분의 단백질을 생산하는 Bt 옥수수 하이브리드품종의 광범위한 사용과 옥수수 및 콩밭에 살충제와 살균제의 혼합물을 널리 사용하는 관행도 그에 역할을 했다고 그는 말했다. 


그리고 Gray 교수가 재배자 모임에서 농민들에게 물으니, 그들이 올해 다시 Bt 옥수수를 심으면 대개가 그렇게 된다고 이야기한다.


"많은 생산자가 다수확 생식질에 접근하기 위하여 Bt 하이브리드 품종의 사용이 필수라고 말한다"고 Gray 교수가 말했다. "많은 재배자가 Bt 하이브리드 품종을 사용하더라도 재배하며 토양 살충제를 사용할 가능성이 높을 것이다."


이는 통합해충관리 -곤충 개체수를 조사하여 어떠한 처방이 필요한지 철저히 평가하고, 옥수수 수확량을 황폐화할 수 있는 서부의 옥수수 뿌리선충과 유럽 조명나방 같은 해충에 적합한 전술을 사용하자고 주장하는 Gray 교수와 같은 연구자의 조언을 몇 십 년 동안 역행한 것이다. 


"우린 콩과 돌려짓기하려고 생각하는 재배자들에게 현재 수준에서 곤충이 수확량에 영향을 줄 것 같을 때만 뿌리고 해마다 Bt를 심지 말거나, 그래도 심는다면 다른 Bt 단백질을 나타내는 다른 유형의 Bt 옥수수를 심으라고 요청했다"고 Gray 교수는 말했다.


하지만 통합해충관리를 사용하는 대신, 재배자들은 그가 "보험해충관리(insurance pest management)"라 부르는 해마다 그들의 작물을 곤충에게서 보호하고자 무기고에서 모든 것을 꺼내 쓰는 방법에 의존하고 있다. 


"일리노이주 중부에서 옥수수의 경우, 토지 비용 이외 -비료, 종자, 작물보험, 농기계와 같은 것들- 의 평균은 1200평에 약 513달러이다"라고 Gray 교수는 말했다. 다수확 토지에는 현금 임대료가 1200평에 325달러 추가될 수 있다고 그는 말했다. "그래서 많은 재배자가 850달러의 투자를 보호하기 위한 꽤 값싼 보험으로 20~25달러의 토양 살충제를 쓴다고 생각한다."


지주들은 이 경기장에서 임대료를 올리고 있고, 일부 대부업자는 재배자에게 그들의 수확물을 보호하기 위해 모든 힘을 다하도록 권하며, 연방의 장려금은 Bt 옥수수를 사용하는 재배자를 위한 작물 보험의 비용을 낮추어 왔다고  Gray 교수는 말했다. 그렇게 농민들이 그런 방식으로 농사를 지어온 데에는 많은 이유가 있는 것이다.


대부분의 재배자는 적은 수의 곤충에 놀라거나 하지 않고 자신의 전략이 제대로 작동하는 증거로 볼 것이라고 Gray 교수는 말했다. 그러나 또 다른 증거는 단기간의 혜택이 뜻밖의 -해로운- 결과를 야기할 것이라 경고한다. 


연구자들은 이미 예를 들어 아이오와, 일리노이, 미네소타, 네브라스카에서 넓적다리잎벌레에 대한 Bt 옥수수의 실패를 발견했다. 2011년 PLoS onE 학술지에 게재된 연구에서, 아이오와주립대의 Aaron Gassmann 씨와 그 동료들은 아이오와의 넓적다리잎벌레로 손상된 옥수수밭에서 그 새끼들이 개체수 통제보다 특정 Bt 독소(손상된 밭에서 사용한 Bt의 유형인 Cry3Bb1)에 영향을 덜 받는다는 것을 입증했다.


Gray 교수는 Cry3Bb1 품종의 Bt 옥수수를 심은 일리노이주에서도 똑같은 종류의 넓적다리잎벌레에 의한 심각한 피해 가능성을 보여줬고, 그는 일리노이에서 Bt 옥수수의 실패에 대한 새로운 연구를 Gassmann 씨와 함께하고 있다. 지금까지 연구자들은 아직 이러한 Bt 실패의 원인을 입증하지 못하고 그 구조를 조사하고 있다. 


"아이오와에서 연구한 Gassmann 씨의 밭에서처럼, 여기 일리노이주에서의 실패는 돌려짓기 없이 여러 해 동안 계속하여 똑같은 Cry3Bb1 Bt 단백질의 옥수수를 반복하여 심은 밭에서이다"라고 Gray 교수는 말했다. 


Bt 옥수수에 대한 재배자들의 신뢰는 아마 1900년대 초에 미국에 우연히 들어온 유럽 조명나방에 대한 커다란 성공 때문일 것이다. 그 곤충은 일리노이주에 1930년대 후반에 이르렀다. 


"치명적인 해충이었다"고 Gray 교수는 말한다. "주요한 수확량 도둑이었다."


Science의 2010년 논문에서, Gray 교수와 몇몇 중서부 지역 대학의 동료들은 1996년 Bt 옥수수의 도입이 중서부 상부 지역에서 유럽 조명나방의 깊고 지속적인 감소를 이끌었다고 보고했다.


이러한 성공은 두 가지 가장 큰 요인이라고 Gray 교수는 말했다. 첫째, 조명나방이 먹는 지상의 옥수수 조직에서 Bt 단백질의 높은 수준을 얻기가 상대적으로 쉬웠다. 둘째, 규제가 Bt가 아닌 옥수수를 심는 보호지구라 불리는 넓은 완충지대를 제공했다. 보호지구는  Bt 내성 변종의 발전을 줄이기 위해, Bt에 노출되어도 독성에 저항하여 살아 남는 곤충과 짝짓기하는 Bt에 취약한 많은 곤충을 공급했을 것이다.


그러나 넓적다리잎벌레 유충은 뿌리에 가장 피해를 주고, 뿌리에서 Bt 독소의 발현은 지상의 조직보다 훨씬 덜하다. 이는 넓적다리잎벌레가 조명나방보다 특정 독소에 훨씬 영향을 덜 받는다는 것을 뜻한다고 Gray 교수는 말했다. 그 사실에 더하여 일부 재배자는 완충지의 필요성을 무시하고 내성을 일으킬 수 있도록 해마다 Bt 옥수수를 심는다고 그는 말했다.


"옥수수가 1부셀에 3달러였고 재배자들이 우리에게 제한된 자원을 어디에 넣을지 묻고 있다면, 우린 이런 대화를 할 필요가 없었을 것이다"라고 그는 말했다. "그러나 이러한 높은 농상품 가격 때문에 값싼 보험과 같은 투입재를 추가하여 더 많은 부셀을 짜내는 것이 나아 보인다."


통합해충관리 방법을 채용하기 위해 옥수수 생산자의 실패를 설명하는 논문은 2010년 9월 27일 'Agricultural Food Chemistry' 학술지에 실렸다. 2010년 논문, "유전자변형 농업생태계에서 상업적 옥수수 생산자를 위한 전통적 통합해충관리(IPM) 전략의 타당성: 과거의 시대인가?"는  U. of I. News Bureau이나 온라인으로 이용할 수 있다. A report on Michael Gray's insect surveys in Illinois is available online.



http://www.seeddaily.com/reports/Researcher_tracks_agricultural_overuse_of_bug_killing_technology_999.html

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