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해리슨 포드 씨가 끝내주는 목소리로 전합니다.


"이 풍경은 단지 숲이 불타는 게 아닙니다. 이것은 기후변화의 문제입니다."






우리가 즐겨 먹는 라면을 튀기는 데 팜유를 쓰죠. 그 팜유는 이렇게 숲을 밀어버리고 생산됩니다.





예전에 보도가 된 사진입니다. 인도네시아에서 팜야자 농장의 일꾼들이 새끼를 꼭 끌어안고 있는 어미 오랑우탄을 바라보고 있습니다. 숲이 파괴되는 일은 숲의 사람이란 오랑우탄에게도 비극을 불러옵니다. 물론 그건 오랑우탄에게만 국한된 일이 아닙니다.




그런데 이런 일이 과연 인도네시아 사람들이 야만적이기에 벌이는 것일까요? 아닙니다. 우리가 그걸 요구하고 있어서 그렇습니다. 일상생활 속에서부터 이 고리를 어떻게 끊을까 고민하고 실천해야 합니다.


숲을 밀어버리는 일은 동남아시아 같은 곳에서만 일어나는 게 아닙니다. 우리가 먹는 고사리. 이것이 주로 생산되는 남해에서 일어나고 있는 모습을 한번 보시죠.


'고사리 재배' 위험천만…나무 밀어내다 산사태 http://news.sbs.co.kr/section_news/news_read.jsp?news_id=N1001171336&pcversion






또한 요즘 출사지로 각광받는 강원도 고랭지의 밭입니다. 

여기에 나무는 모두 어디로 간 것일까요? 글쎄요... 원래부터 없었는지도 모르죠.






이러한 일이 남해와 강원도의 농민들은 무식하고 돈에 눈이 멀어서 그럴까요? 아닙니다. 그들도 이 사회 안에서 살려고 발버둥치는 겁니다. 이들이 있어 그나마 도시민들이 고사리나 김장을 먹으며 삽니다. 이것은 개인이 아닌 바로 구조, 이른바 식량체계의 문제입니다.

단순히 비용과 효율성만 따지면 따질수록 이런 일은 더욱 심해질 것이 뻔합니다. 비용과 효율을 계산할 때 환경과 생태, 공정성 등의 가치를 포함시켜야 합니다. 가치의 기준을 바꾸지 않고서는 논리적으로도 절대 이기지도 바꾸지도 못할 겁니다.



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A John Deere combine harvests corn.

매년 미국 농지의 약 30%에는 옥수수를 재배하고, 미국의 농민들은 매해 세계에서 생산되는 옥수수의 40% 가까이를 생산한다. 

왜 미국은 이렇게 단일작물만 많이 재배하는가 —그리고 그 노력으로 얻는 것은 무엇인가? 8년 전 식량 정치에 관하여 쓰기 시작한 이후 그 물음을 곰곰히 생각해 왔다. 그에 대한 답은(여기여기를 참조) 종자와 농화학제품을 옥수수를 재배하는 농민에게 제공하고, 그 수확한 옥수수를 구입하여 다양한 제품으로 변환시키는 기업들의 느슨한 동맹은 인기가 없다는 것이다. 2010년으로 돌아가, 당시 옥수수 산업의 대변인이 "反옥수수 의제를 지닌 엘리트의 고함"이라며 비난한 적 있다.

Cathryn Wojcicki 또는 트위터에서는 @CornyCate라고 알려진 전문가였다. 미네소타 대학의 생태학 교수인 Jonathan Foley 씨는 이러한 옥수수 농업에 대해 냉철한 검토가 필요하다고 한다. Foley 씨는 산업계에서 묵살될 것이다. 그는 산업 규모의 농업이 유기농업보다 25% 수확량이 많다고 결론을 내린 2012년 Nature 논문의 공동저자이다. 그에 대해 제한된 범위에서 불충분하게 비판한 바 있다. 그렇기에 그는 성향상 정확하게 "反옥수수 엘리트"가 아니다.

그의 새로운 글에서 Foley 씨는 미국 농업에서 차지하는 옥수수의 지위를 회의적으로 바라보고는…  기괴함을 발견한다.

그는 옥수수의 매력을 이야기하며 시작한다:

여타의 다른 작물과 비교하여 엄청난 생산량을 올리며, 미국의 어디에서나, 특히 중서부와 대평원에서 번성하고 있다. 게다가 깜짝 놀랄 정도로 많은 제품으로 변환시킬 수 있다. 옥수수는 옥수수 가루, 거친 옥수수 가루,  굵은 옥수수 가루, 단옥수수로 음식을 만들 수 있다. 동물 사료로 사용하여 돼지와 닭, 소를 살찌울 수도 있다. 또한 에탄올과 고과당시럽이나 심지어 생분해 플라스틱으로도 변환시킬 수 있다.


옥수수-콩 괴물이 미국 농지의 절반 이상을 덮고 있다.  National Corn Growers Association, World of Corn 2012



그러나 그 분석은 곧 충격적으로 변한다. Foley 씨는 매우 생산적이고 수확량이 많은 작물로서의 옥수수와 "사람들을 먹여살리는 데에 비효율적인" 농업 체계의 중심으로서의 옥수수를 구분한다. 어떻게 그럴 수 있는가? 그는 옥수수 작물의 매우 적은 양만 우리의 식탁에 직접적으로 오른다고 지적한다. 막대한 양의 옥수수는 동물 사료와 에탄올, 수출품(주로 동물 사료로)이 된다. Foley 씨는 이렇게 말한다: 이러한 한계수익을 생성하기 위하여 우리는 막대한 자원을 쏟아붓고 있다. 얼마나 되는가? Foley 씨는 말한다:

옥수수를 먹인 동물에서 육류와 유제품의 칼로리로 얻는 변환 효율은 동물의 사육 체계에 따라 다르지만 약 3~40%의 범위이다. 이는 실제로는 적은 양의 옥수수 작물이 미국인을 먹여살리는 데 쓰인다는 것을 뜻한다. 산술적으로 살펴보자. 아이오와의 평균적인 옥수수밭은 연간 1200평당 1500만 칼로리 이상을 생산할 수 있다(만약 옥수수만 먹으며 하루 3000칼로리를 소비한다면, 1200평으로 14명이 먹기 충분). 그러나 현재 옥수수는 에탄올과 동물 사료에도 할당되어 있어서, 결국 연간 1200평당 300만 칼로리를 음식으로 얻는다고 추산된다. 그것은 주로 육류와 유제품으로 제공되어 1200평당 단 3명만 먹고 살 수 있다. 이는 방글라데시와 이집트, 베트남의 농업에서 얻는 평균 식품 칼로리보다 낮은 수치이다


이러한 한계수익을 생성하기 위하여 우리는 막대한 자원을 쏟아붓고 있다. 얼마나 되는가? Foley 씨는 말한다:


미국에서 옥수수는 약 1190억 평에 펼쳐져 있어 다른 어떤 작물보다 더 많은 농지를 사용한다. 이는 캘리포니아와 맞먹는 넓이이다. 미국 옥수수는 또한 미국의 강과 대수층에서 가져온 관개용수를 연간 9입방킬로미터 정도 사용한다고 추산되는 등 담수 자원의 막대한 양을 소비한다. 그리고 옥수수에 주는 화학비료는 엄청나다. 연간 질소 560만 톤 이상을 화학비료를 통해 옥수수에 준다. 이와 함께 분뇨를 통해 약 100만 톤의 질소를 준다. 이렇게 많은 양의 화학비료과 엄청난 양의 흙과 함께 미국의 강과 호수, 바다로 흘러들어가서 물을 오염시키고, 가는 곳마다 생태계를 파괴하고 있다. 멕시코만의 죽음의 구역(dead zone)이 가장 큰데, 대표적인 사례이다.



모든 옥수수는 어디로 가는가? 주로 가축사육장과 에탄올 공장, 고과당 옥수수시럽(HFCS)이다. National Corn Growers Association, World of Corn 2012



더 나은 방법은 무엇인가? Foley 씨는 이렇게 말한다. 이리로 곧장 가보자. 우리는 미국 농지의 약 1/3을 바치고 있다 —그곳은 중서부 초원 지역의 대부분으로 세계에서 가장 비옥한 농지의 일부이다. 이렇게 자원을 빨이들이는 농업 체계는 방글라데시의 그것보다 비효율적이다. 그리고 실제로 옥수수를 사료로 먹이는 부조리한 농업에서 옥수수의 유일한 친구가 있는데, 그것은 바로 대두이다. 이것도 또한 주로 동물 사료와 기타 산업적 용도로 쓰인다. 옥수수 체계는 또한 작물보조금의 형태로 막대한 양의 공적 자원을 흡수한다고 Foley 씨는 지적한다. 그리고 다양성이 부족하기 때문에 충격에 약하다고도 한다. 그래서 현재 미국의 농지 절반 이상이 엄청나게 낭비되고 있으며, 위험한 활동에 묶여 있다는 것이다. 

이렇게 전환된 농업 체계는 더 다양한 경관을 나타낼 것이다. 옥수수와 함께 여러 종류의 곡물과 유지작물, 과일, 채소, 방목지와 초원이 함께 경관을 구성할 것이다. 생산방식은 관행농업, 보존농업, 생명공학, 유기농업의 최고의 방식이 혼합될 것이다. 보조금은 비옥한 토양과 깨끗한 물을 보존하며 미래세대를 위해 경관을 풍부하게 하면서 더욱 건강하고 영양가 많은 먹을거리를 생산하는 농민에 대한 보상을 목표로 할 것이다. 이러한 체계는 우리가 지금 가진 체계보다 더 많은 사람들을 먹여살리고, 더 많은 농민을 고용하며, 더욱 지속가능하고 탄력적일 것이다.  

 

Foley 씨는 이렇게 2012년 아이오와 주립대학의 연구에서 나타나듯이 중서부에서 더 다양한 농업 체계로 전환하여 많은 생태적 혜택을 볼 수 있다고 지적한다. 또는 코넬 대학 연구자들의 이 새로운 연구는 다양한 돌려짓기를 행하는 농지가 저자들이 "옥수수-콩 대규모 단작"이라 부르는 방식으로 농사짓는 농지보다 질소오염이 훨씬 덜 스며나온다고 밝히고 있다.

그럼 무엇이 방해할까? Foley 씨가 지적하듯이, 문제는 농민에게 있는 것이 아니라 농업정책과 농기업의 시장/정치 권력에 있다. "주로 로비스트와 무역협회, 대형 사업자와 정부에 의해 괴수가 만들어진다." 현행 상황에서 농민들은 "옥수수를 재배하지 않으면 미칠 것"이라고 이어간다. 그들은 "단순히 시장과 정책이 요구하는 것을 제공할 뿐이다." 즉 옥수수 체계는 농기업을 위해 작동하고, 업계는 적소에 선호하는 정책 의제가 유지될 수 있도록 로비를 하고 있다.



http://goo.gl/ZOvj8

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옥수수와 대두 밭이 서부 옥수수 곡창지대의 초원을 급속하게 삼키고 있다.


미국의 옥수수 벨트 지역을 급속도로 옥수수와 대두가 점령하고 있다. 점점 심해지는 기후변화의 영향을 생각하면 옥수수밭을 차라리 소를 위한 목초지로 전환하여 대비하는 것이 더 낫다. 그 발상은 그러한 움직임이 토양에 대량의 탄소를 빨아들일 수 있다고 계산한 테네시 대학과 바드(Bard) 칼리지의 연구자들이 쓴 논문에서 얻었다. 그렇게 하면 농업에서 배출하는 온실가스를 연간 36%까지 줄일 수 있다. 이산화탄소 절감만이 아니라, 풀을 먹인 고품질의 소고기도 얻을 수 있다(옥수수로 완성된 음식보다 건강한 지방질을 지님).

그런데 중서부의 농민들이 반대의 일을 꾀하고 있었다. 연방의 옥수수 에탄올 프로그램 -위험을 경감시키는 연방의 작물보험 보조금에 의한 것만이 아니라- 으로 인해 작물의 가격이 상승한 데에 자극을 받은 농민들이 엄청나게 커다란 옥수수와 대두 카펫으로 걷어내기는 커녕 중서부를 뒤덮고 있다. 사우스 다코타 주립대학의 연구자들이 국립 과학아카데미에 발표한 새로운 논문의 요지가 그것이다. 

그들은 "서부 옥수수 벨트(노스 다코타, 사우스 다코타, 미네소타, 아이오와, 네브라스카)"라고 부르는 곳의 최근 2006~2011년 사이의 토지이용 변화를 관찰했다. 그들이 발견한 것은 그 지역의 초원이 "브라질, 말레이시아, 인도네시아의 삼림 벌채율에 비견할 만한" 속도로 갈아엎어지고 있다는 것이다. 연구자들에 따르면, 그 지역에서 초원이 사라지는 속도가 미국 농업의 급속한 기계화 시대였던 1920~1930년대와 비슷하다. 그들은 약 24억5000만 평의 초원 —거의 로드아일랜드와 델라웨어를 합친 넓이— 이 2006~2011년 사이에 갈아엎어졌다는 것을 알아냈다. 그 기간 동안 단 8120만 평 정도만이 옥수수/콩밭에서 초원이 되었고, 이는 옥수수 왕의 왕국이 약 16억 평으로 넓어졌다는 것을 의미한다. 

저자들은 쟁기로 갈아엎은 영역이 "한계지"가 되는 경향이 있다고 지적한다. 그곳은 "침식 위험이 높고 가뭄에 취약한 특징이 있어" 작물 농업보다 방목에 훨씬 나은 곳이다. 

그리고 위험도가 높다. 이번 달 초에 미국 농무부는 186쪽짜리 보고서 "미국의 기후변화와 농업"을 발표했다. 저자들은 주로 현행 옥수수-콩 작부체계가 지배하는 농업이 기온 상승이란 맥락에서 지속할 수 있을지에 대한 문제에 우려를 표한다. 답은 그리 낙관적이지 않다. 단기적으로, 저자들은 미국의 농업 체계가 "기후변화에 매우 탄력적일 것으로 예상된다"고 결론을 내린다. 그러나 이번 세기 중반까지 "기온 상승이 1~3°C를 초과하고 폭우가 격렬해지리라 예상되어," 저자들은 미국의 주요한 작물들에서 상당한 수확량 감소가 나타나리라 전망한다. 농민은 왜 그렇게 위험한 땅을 갈아엎을까? 간단하다. 연방의 정책이 높은 보상과 작은 위험을 제안하기 때문이다. 저자들은 연방의 에탄올 의무량과 끊임없는 월가의 투기에 추동되어 옥수수와 대두의 가격이 2006~2011년 사이에 실제 2배로 올랐다고 지적한다. 또한 연방의 작물보험 보조금도 있다고 덧붙인다. 농민들이 한계지에서 작물을 괴롭히며 어떻게든 농사를 지으면 높은 가격으로 보상을 받는다. 그러나 실패한다면 보조금을 받은 보험으로 손해를 메꿀 수 있다. 근본적으로 에탄올 의무량과 보험 프로그램을 통한 연방의 농업정책은 오히려 줄여야 할 시기에 옥수수와 대두 농업이 확대되도록 승인하고 있는 셈이다. 

물론 가장 주요한 미국의 작물은 옥수수와 대두이다. 현재 이 두 작물이 미국 농지의 거의 절반을 뒤덮고 있다. 안타깝게도 미국 농무부의 보고서는 이 두 작물에 대한 의존이 어떻게 우리를 기후변화에 더 취약해지도록 만드는지 결코 분석하지 않는다. 또한 그로부터 멀어져 작물을 다양화하는 하는 것이 더욱 탄력적이고 식량안보에 도움이 된다는 생각도 제공하지 않는다. 


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먼저 아래는 1990~2012년 사이 세계의 곡물 생산량과 재고율을 보여주는 표이다.



이를 한눈에 알아보기 쉽도록 다른 그래프로 살펴보자.





위 그래프에서 보이는 바와 같이 세계의 곡물 생산량은 꾸준히 증가하는 추세이나, 해에 따라 기후변화의 영향이 심해지면 생산량이 조금씩 감소하기도 한다(http://blog.daum.net/stonehinge/8728062).

그런데 생산량이 꾸준히 느는 것과 관계없이 재고율은 점점 떨어지는 경향을 볼 수 있다.

이는 빠르게 증가하고 있는 세계의 인구 때문인데, 현재 70억의 인구가 앞으로 2050년이면 90억을 돌파할 것으로 예상되어 곡물 생산량을 현재의 수준보다 70% 정도를 증가시켜야 한다고 전망한다.

그래야만 인간들이 서로 싸우지 않고 사이좋게 지낼 수 있을 것이라는 이야기이다.



그렇다면 현재 세계의 토지가 어떻게 이용되는지 살펴보자. 인간이 이용하는 토지를 크게 초지와 농지로 나눌 수 있다. 



초지에서는 당연히 목축이나 축산 등을 중심으로 하고, 농지에서는 농업이 주를 이룬다. 물론 두 가지 형태가 혼합되어 나타나는 곳도 있을 것이다. 과거에는 농지에는 정주민이, 초지에는 유목민이 깃들어 살았다.


이 가운데 방목을 하는 곳만 따로 분리하면 아래와 같다.



역시 중앙아시아 쪽과 호주 및 미국에서 가축을 방목하는 데에 많은 토지를 사용하고 있다. 이렇게 세계의 토지 가운데 약 75%가 고기를 생산하는 데 사용되고 있다. 이를 줄이지 못하면 기아문제니 식량문제니 하는 문제를 해결하기 어려운데, 일단 가장 쉬운 방법은 고기 소비를 좀 줄이는 것이다. 


그럼 축산농가는 무엇을 먹고 사느냐고? 그 대신 축산농가는 대량생산이 아닌 양질의 고기를 생산하는 데 초점을 맞출 수 있겠다. 그로 인하여 줄어드는 판매량은 양질의 고기가 갖는 가격 프리미엄으로 보상받는 길이 있다. 그러면 자연히 동물복지나 공장식 축산으로 인한 환경문제도 해결될 수 있다. 그런데 문제는 '생존'. 저놈이 나와의 암묵적 합의를 어기고 대량으로 싸게 후려치면 그때부터는 다시 싸움판으로 변할 가능성이 존재한다. 그래서 정책과 제도, 법이 필요한 법. 정부의 중재, 통제하는 역할이 중요하다.



다음으로는 인간이 이용하는 주요한 세 가지 작물의 재배지역을 살펴보자. 그것은 밀, 옥수수, 벼이다.


먼저 세계의 밀 재배지역이다.



역시 유럽과 서아시아, 중앙아시아, 중국 화북지방, 미국과 호주 등지에서 널리 재배, 이용한다




다음은 세계의 옥수수 재배지역. 



옥수수의 원산지 중미와 브라질, 아르헨티나 및 미국 중서부의 옥수수 벨트, 발칸반도 일대와 아프리카 사하라 이남, 중국 화북지방 및 만주에서 널리 재배하는 모습이다.



마지막으로 세계의 벼 재배지역. 



역시 벼, 곧 쌀밥 문화권은 아시아 지역을 중심으로 형성된다. 미국과 남미, 유럽과 서아프리카의 일부 지역에서도 재배하기는 하지만 아시아에 비해서는 미미한 수준. 


벼와 관련하여 빼놓을 수 없는 것이 있다. 그 옛날부터 물꼬 싸움으로 치고받았다는 것처럼 바로 '물'이다. 특히나 관개를 하는 농지의 비율을 살펴보자.



역시 벼농사 지대에서 관개용수를 많이 사용하는 것을 확인할 수 있다.

그런데, 벼농사 지대 이외의 곳에서도 꽤 많은 관개용수를 사용하는 곳을 볼 수 있다. 바로, 미국과 중동 쪽이다. 이런 곳에서는 지나친 지하수 사용으로 지하수 고갈 등과 같은 또 다른 문제를 야기할 수 있다. 


관개용수의 남용과 함께 시너지 효과(?)를 일으킬 요소가 있으니, 그것은 바로 질소비료의 남용이다. 관개용수에 질소비료가 녹아 지하수와 강, 바다, 호수로 흘러들어가면 그 유명한 녹조 현상이 발생한다. 이것이 바다에서는 적조로 나타난다. 이렇게 녹조 현상이 심각한 곳에서는 수중생물들이 쓸 수 있는 산소가 없어져 아무것도 살지 못하는 '죽음의 구역(Dead Zone)'이라는 곳이 만들어진다. 


그렇다면 어디에서 질소비료를 많이 사용하는지 아래의 지도를 살펴보자.



미국과 유럽 같은 선진국에서 질소비료를 많이 사용하는 것을 확인할 수 있다. 역시 비료는 돈이 살 수 있는 金肥이기에 그러할 것이다. 상대적으로 가난한 사람들이 많은 아프리카와 남미 같은 곳에서는 질소비료의 사용량이 그렇게 많지 않다는 것이 그를 반증한다.


또한 인도와 중국, 한국 같은 벼농사 지대에서도 질소비료의 사용량이 많은 편이다. 이런 곳에서는 물이 오염될 위험이 높다. 실제로 한국에서는 해마다 여름이면 녹조와 적조 현상으로 골머리를 앓고 있다.  





여기서 잠깐! 마지막으로 현재 뜨거운 감자로 떠오르고 있는 유전자조작(GM) 작물의 재배 현황에 대해서 살펴보고 끝마치겠다.



1996년 처음으로 상업적 도입이 시작된 이후, 유전자조작 작물의 재배면적은 꾸준히 빠르게 증가하고 있다. 

2012년에는 최초로 개발도상국의 재배면적이 선진국의 재배면적을 초과하기 시작했다. 이는 브라질의 약진이 가장 큰 역할을 했다(이에 대한 자세한 내용은 여기를 참조하라 http://blog.daum.net/stonehinge/8728035).

현재 28개국에서 재배하고 있는데, 앞으로 이는 더욱 확대될 전망이다. 슬프지만 인정해야 하는 현실...


과연 유전자조작 작물이 그 지지자들의 주장처럼 곡물 생산량을 획기적으로 증가시킬 수 있을지가 관건이다.

물론 녹색혁명이 시작될 당시 F1 종자에 대해서도 그런 의견이 있었을 것이다. 그것처럼 유전자조작 종자도 무언가 성취할 가능성이 높다.

그때가 되면 우리는 또 다른 세상을 맛보게 될 것이다. 악몽이 될지, 길몽이 될지는 뚜껑을 열어봐야지.


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American farmers, as the recent Super Bowl ad showed, are just simple, hard-working folk, scratching a living from the land. Right? Except for the hard-working part, don’t believe it. Farmers are capitalists, just as much as their cousins in the big city. Case in point: as the price of crops like corn and soybeans has risen considerably in recent years—thanks to increased demand, both for food and as feedstocks for biofuel—farmers have been planting more of them. Supply and demand–it’s Econ 101 at its purest. (With the exception of thebillions upon billions of dollars worth of market-distorting subsidies that are part of the agriculture sector. But that’s grist for another post.)

If a farmer wants to increase the amount of grain they produce, he really only has a couple of options. He can try to squeeze more crop out of the land he’s already farming, which is something American farmers have been pretty good at. (Corn yields per acre have increased by more than two and a half times since 1960.) Or he can expand the amount of land that he’s farming, by converting or buying non-farmed land and putting it into cultivation. Land, after all, is the raw material of agriculture, like steel and rubber are the raw materials of a car. More land means more crops. Add in the fact that funding has been declining for the government’s Conservation Reserve Program, which pays farmers to protect wildlife by keeping land uncultivated.

(MORE: Desert Dreams: Can the Middle Eastern Country of Qatar Learn to Feed Itself?)

According to a new study in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, that’s exactly what’s happened to the western end of the great U.S. corn belt. Researchers from South Dakota State University crunched the numbers and found that 1.3 million acres of grassland in disappeared between 2006 and 2011 in North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska, Iowa and Minnesota. The grassland was converted to cropland, as farmers expanded their territory in an effort to cash in—and I mean that in a totally non-pejorative sense—on the boom in crop prices. In South Dakota and Iowa, as much as 5% of grassland per year was converted to farmland.

As lead author Christopher Wright told NPR, “This is kind of the worst-kept secret in the Northern Plains.” You can literally see the land being converted by the plow. But as the study goes onto state, turning grassland to cropland can have negative consequences for the larger environment:

For instance, it’s bad news for wildlife, because corn fields are much less inviting habitat for a wide range of wild creatures, from ground-nesting birds to insects, including bees. Corn and soybean fields are increasingly encroaching into the Prairie Pothole region of the Dakotas and Minnesota, the most important breeding habitat for waterfowl in North America.

Farmland—especially American farmland—is great for producing food that supports human beings. But it’s not so great for supporting other species—at least compared to native grasslands. (And it’s not just a problem for the U.S. The world may need to feed some 9 billion people by mid-century, which could mean doubling food production from current levels. Farming already covers nearly 40% of the planet’s land area. If that doubling is achieved by significantly expanding the amount of the planet under the plow, well, there really won’t be much wilderness left to save. We’ll be living on Planet Corn Belt.

(MORE: Whole Food Blues: Why Organic Agriculture May Not Be So Sustainable)



Read more: http://science.time.com/2013/02/20/as-crop-prices-rise-farmland-expands-and-the-environment-suffers/#ixzz2MFBZws6q


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OVER the last decade, as populations have grown, capital has flowed across borders and crop yields have leveled off, food-importing nations and private investors have been securing land abroad to use for agriculture. Poor governments have embraced these deals, but their people are in danger of losing their patrimony, not to mention their sources of food.

According to Oxfam, land equivalent to eight times the size of Britain was sold or leased worldwide in the last 10 years. In northern Mozambique, a Brazilian-Japanese venture plans to farm more than 54,000 square miles — an area comparable to Pennsylvania and New Jersey combined — for food exports. In 2009, a Libyan firm leased 386 square miles of land from Mali without consulting local communities that had long used it. In the Philippines, the government is so enthusiastic to promote agribusiness that it lets foreigners register partnerships with local investors as domestic corporations.

The commoditization of global agriculture has aggravated the destabilizing effects of these large-scale land grabs. Investors typically promise to create local jobs and say that better farming technologies will produce higher crop yields and improve food security.

However, few of these benefits materialize. For example, as The Economist reported, a Swiss company promised local farmers 2,000 new jobs when it acquired a 50-year lease to grow biofuel crops on 154 square miles in Makeni, Sierra Leone; in the first three years, it produced only 50.

Many investors, in fact, use their own labor force, not local workers, and few share their technology and expertise. Moreover, about two-thirds of foreign investors in developing countries expect to sell their harvests elsewhere. These exports may not even be for human consumption. In 2008 in Sudan, the United Arab Emirates was growing sorghum, a staple of the Sudanese diet, to feed camels back home.

Much of the land being acquired is in conflict-prone countries. one of the largest deals — the acquisition by investors led by the Saudi Binladin Group of some 4,600 square miles in Indonesia — was put on hold because the area, in Papua, was torn by strife.

The prospects for conflict are heightened by legal uncertainties. Often, an absence of authoritative land registration and titles makes it easy for foreign investors, with the connivance of host governments, to secure land that local communities have long depended upon, even if they cannot demonstrate formal ownership. About 500 million sub-Saharan Africans rely on such communally held land, and land sales can be devastating, as in Mali. Access to food is often cut off, livelihoods are shattered and communities are uprooted.

Not surprisingly, the land sales provoke protests and then repression. Last year, in Cambodia, where 55 percent of arable land has been acquired by domestic and foreign agribusiness interests, the authorities killed an activist, a journalist and a teenage girl facing eviction; jailed other activists, and harassed politically active Buddhist monks.

To be sure, financiers have invested in farmland for centuries: Ancient Romans acquired assets in North Africa, just as American fruit companies secured plantations in Central America a century ago. But today’s transactions are far bigger. Nearly 200 private equity firms are expected to have almost $30 billion in private capital invested by 2015.

Some speculators just sit on high-value land they have acquired without cultivating it. In many traditional communities, this feels like a desecration, a violation of land’s purpose and meaning. That kind of capitalist disregard can set the stage for pitched battles over land that investors see as uninhabited, but that local communities cherish as a source of food, water and medicine, or venerate as ancestral burial grounds.

The chief drivers of the global farmland race — population growth, food and energy demand, volatile commodity prices, land and water shortages — won’t slow anytime soon. Neither will extreme weather events and other effects of climate change on natural resources.

In theory, host countries could limit how much land can be acquired by foreigners, or require that a minimum portion of harvests be sold in local markets. Argentina and Brazil have announced measures to limit or ban new land concessions. But investors use their wealth and their own governments’ power to impede regulation. Host governments should establish better land registration practices and enact safeguards against the displacement of their citizens. The World Bank and other international entities must ensure that their development projects are free from the taint of exploitative practices.

Of course, this will be difficult because so many host governments are riddled with corruption and prioritize profit-making land deals over the needs of their populations. Cambodia, Laos and Sudan — all sites of transnational land purchases — are among the world’s 20 most corrupt nations, according to Transparency International.

“Buy land, they’re not making it anymore,” is a quotation often attributed to Mark Twain. These days, that advice is being heeded all too well.

Michael Kugelman, a senior program associate at the Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, is co-editor of “The Global Farms Race: Land Grabs, Agricultural Investment, and the Scramble for Food Security.”


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농수로를 정비하는 파키스탄의 농부. 



나 어릴적 살던 곳도 이러했다. 

그곳에서도 사진처럼 백로가 농부를 보고도 도망가지 않았다. 

오히려 쟁기질이라도 할라치면 뒤를 졸졸 따라다니며 먹을 걸 잡아먹던 그런 곳이었다.


지금은 농수로가 시멘트로 발라지고, 논에선 농기계의 소음이 가득한 곳이지만... 그래도 백로는 여전히 따라다니긴 하더라.


그래도 다양한 생물들이 어울려 살던 농지가 인간이 재배하는 작물만 존재하는 그런 곳으로 변한 것은 너무 안타깝다.





그런가 하면 식물공장에서는 작물만 자란다. 

농사는 단지 작물만 재배해서 수확하면 되는 일인가? 

LED로 햇빛을 대신하고, 양액으로 비와 흙을 대신해서 작물만 길러 먹으면 되는 일인가? 

근본적인 질문에 대한 답을 생각할 겨를도 없이 식물공장을 실험하고 짓는다. 그것이 결국 '돈'이 되기 때문이다.


그래도 괜찮은 것인지 나는 늘 의문이다. 

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1. 토양 중 농약잔류

   1980년대 초까지는 환경 중 생물농축성이 큰 유기염소계 농약이 극미량이나마 검출되었으나 1990년 이후에는 검출되지 않았으며, 환경 중 잔류 우려가 없는 유기인계 농약이 낮은 검출빈도로 극미량 검출되었다.

1. 논토양 중 농약 잔류량의 변화 (농약연 : 1982, 농과원 : 1995)

1982

1999

검출빈도(%)

잔류량(ppm)

검출빈도(%)

잔류량(ppm)

BHC
DDT
Heptachlor
Iprobenfos
Diazinon
Phenthoate

100
  58
  89
  56
  70
   2

0.003
0.003
0.001
0.019
0.013
0.003

    0
    0
    0
  20
  12
    0

불검출
불검출
불검출
0.129
0.002
불검출



2. 시설재배지 토양 중 농약잔류 실태 (농과원 : 1996)

검출빈도(%)

검출범위(ppm)

불검출 성분

살균제

Fenarimol
Vinclozolin
Hexaconazole
5

7.9
5.0
0.7~4.3

0.007~0.770
0.001~0.214
0.003~0.512

Cyproconazole 6

살충제

Ethoprophos
Endosulfan
Bifenthrin
11

10.0   
9.3
0.7~0.6

0.003~0.295
0.002~0.147
0.009~0.141

DDT 13

제초제

Butachlor
Alachlor
3

10.0   
0.7

0.005~0.198
0.013~0.053

Bromacil 7

   ) Captafol, Chlorpyrifos, Diazinon, Dichlofluanid, Dieldrin, Endosulfan, Ethoprophos, Fenobucarb,
        Iprobenfos, Isoprocarb, Fonofos, Parathion, Phenthoate, Pirimicarb, Pirimiphos-ethyl, Pirimiphos-methyl
        
Terbufos는 낮은 검출빈도로 극미량이 검출되었음

 


3. 농약의 토양 중 최장 반감기                                                                                      (단위 : 성분수)

토양중 최장 반감기()

15

16~30

31~60

61~120

121~180

181




생장조정제

  37
  45
  33
   8

  31
  43
  30
   6

21
26
25
  1

15
14
  4
  1

1
2
1
1

-
-
-
-

105
130
  93
  17

123
(35.6%)

110
(31.9)

73
(21.2)

34
(9.9)

5
(1.4)

-
(0.0)

345
(100)


  . 토양 중 잔류농약의 안전성 여부는 농약의 토양 중 반감기로 평가하고 있으며 경작지 토양 중 반감기가 6개월
       
이상인 농약으로 후작물에 영향이 있는 농약을 토양잔류성 농약으로 구분하고 있다.
  
. 현재 국내에서 사용중인 농약의 대부분(98% 이상)이 토양 중 반감기가 120일 미만으로 잔류기간이 짧아
       
토양 중 농약의 잔류 우려가 없다. 또한 토양잔류성 농약은 앞으로도 계속하여 등록이 보류된다.
  
. 미국, 일본 등 선진국에서는 농약의 토양 중 반감기가 1년 이상인 농약을 토양잔류성 농약으로 분류하고 있다.



2. 농약사용과 토양의 특성 변화


 



. 농약사용과 토양의 pH 변화

 


   농약은 일반 유기물과 같이 탄소와 수소가 주축이 되고 그 외에 질소, 인산, 유황 등의 원소가 결합되어 있는 유기화합물로서 토양중의 미생물에 의해서 최종적으로 물과 탄산가스로 분해되어 소실되므로 토양을 산성화시킬 우려할 만한 요인을 가지고 있지 않다.

 


4. 농약 종류별 토양 pH에 미치는 영향 (농기연 : 1979)

(표준량 살포)


(
아이비입제)


(
카보입제)


(
부타입제)

토양 pH

6.22

6.44

6.36

6.40

 




. 농약사용과 토양미생물의 활성


 

  (1) 농약도 탄수화물과 같은 유기화합물이므로 농약의 종류에 따라서 정도의 차이는 있으나 토양미생물이
        
농약을 분해하여 자체의 영양원으로 이용하기도 한다.
  (2)
농약사용으로 질소 고정량이 증가하는 것은 토양중 유용미생물인 질소고정균이 농약을 분해하여
       
영양분으로 이용하므로 활력이 증대되기 때문이다.

 


5. 농약이 토양미생물에 미치는 영향 (농기연 : 1980)

 

처리농약

토양 미생물수(토양g)

질소 고정량
(mg/100g
토양/38)

세균



살균제 (아이비입제)
살충제 ( )
제초제 ( )

x 106
5.4
5.9
4.1
6.9

x 103
7
11
12
6

x 106
3.0
1.7
4.0
10.3


0.045
3.171
7.205
2.898




3. 토양중 농약의 잔류대책


  . 토양 중 잔류농약의 안전성을 평가하기 위한 잔류허용기준을 설정한다.
  
. 토양 중 농약의 분해, 대사산물의 생물활성 및 생태계에 미치는 영향을 연구하고 잔류농약 경감대책을 수립한다.
  
. PIC(Prior Informed Consent)제도 적극 수용, 잔류성 농약의 국내 사용을 근본적으로 방지한다.


6. 잔류성 농약의 생산, 사용 금지 상황

생산 사용금지농약

살균제
살충제

유기수은계 농약
유기염소계 농약

      세레산석회(1969), 메르크롱(1978)
     
알드린·디엘드린(1971), 엔드린(1979), 디디티 (1979)  
     
비에치씨(1979), 헵타크롤(1979)

   잔류기간이 긴 유기수은계 및 유기염소계 농약 15종은 이미 생산, 사용을 금지시켰으며, 앞으로도 잔류성 농약은 계속하여 사용이 규제된다.


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유기농산물이라고 하면 대부분 '비싸다'고 인식한다. 물론 대개의 유기농산물과 관련된 식품은 확실히 '비싸다'. 그러나 꼭 그렇지만도 않다. 바로 계약재배가 가진 장점 때문에 그러한데, 특히 관행농의 생산비가 특별한 사건으로 급증할수록 더욱 그렇다. 다음의 기사가 그 좋은 사례를 보여주고 있다. http://goo.gl/JVfSj


지금은 유기농산물의 생산량이 절대적으로 부족하여 비싼 편이지만, 수요가 늘어 생산자와 생산량이 지금보다 훨씬 많아진다면 그때는 좀 더 가격이 떨어질 수 있을 것이다. 물론 유기농업을 위한 과학기술도 그 뒤를 받쳐줘야할 것이다. 유기농산물을 소비함으로써 지구 환경에 이로움을 주는데, 온실가스 배출의 감소와 농약으로 인한 수질 악화의 예방, 화학비료로 야기되는 부영양화 현상으로 인한 녹조니 적조니 하는 것도 줄일 수 있다.


이러한 유기농업은 특성상 경제적인(돈이라는 측면에서만) 대규모 단작의 방식보단 중소규모의 농민들이 생산을 담당하게 된다. 그래서 유기농산물을 소비하면 자연스레 그들을 지원할 수 있고, 이는 곧 농지의 보존으로도 이어질 수 있다. 한국에서는 2012년 상반기에만 여의도의 약 8.3배에 달하는 농지가 사라졌다. 이에 대한 기사는 여기를 참조. http://goo.gl/MPcqe


한국에서 식량자급률 30%를 달성하기 위해 최소한으로 유지해야 할 농지 규모를 산정한 면적이 165만 헥타르이다. 그런데 현재 한국의 농지면적은 약 170만 헥타르. 농지가 매년 1만 헥타르씩 사라진다고 해도 4~5년 안에 그 이하로 더 떨어질 것이라는 계산이 가능하다. 그렇게 된다면 한국의 식량자급률은 더욱더 바닥으로 떨어지게 될 것이다. 흔히들 "땅 파먹고 살 거냐"고 하지만, 우리가 먹는 농산물을 생각하면, 그리고 우리가 먹어야만 사는 존재라는 걸 생각하면 말 그대로 땅을 파먹어야지 무얼 먹을 건가? 땅 파서 거기에 빌딩 짓고 아파트 지어서 먹고 살 것인가?


농지의 보존과 확대라는 일, 그것을 이루려면 그 사업의 주체인 농민을 육성해야 하고, 또 그들을 뒷받침할 농업의 부흥, 그를 위해선 과학기술에 대한 투자 및 유통망에 대한 정비가 뒤따라야겠고, 이 모든 게 자연스레 일어나야 한다. 우리에게 익숙한 상명하복식이 아니라.


영국의 인구 6264만, 한국의 인구 5000만(2012년). 영국의 인구 1인당 농지면적 0.095ha, 한국의 인구 1인당 농지면적 0.035ha(2005년). 그런데 영국의 식량자급률 100%, 한국의 식량자급률 26%(2011년). 과연 무엇이 문제인가?


당연히 땅이 너무 좁고 인구는 너무 많은 것이 근본적인 문제인지도 모른다. 그런데 인구는 계속 늘고, 그러니 먹을 건 계속 딸리고, 자국에서 감당이 안 되니 수입할 수밖에 없고... 그런 악순환의 고리에 놓여 있다.


현재 한국의 농지와 식량자급률이 약 169만 헥타르에 26%인데, 이를 바탕으로 국내 생산만으로 식량자급률 100%를 위해선 얼마의 농지가 필요한지 계산하면 약 367만 헥타르가 필요하다. 그런데 앞에서 지적했듯이 농지는 물론, 농민까지 계속 줄어들고 있다. 식량안보를 걱정하며 시작한 새만금사업도, 물막이 공사가 끝나고 나니 기존 계획과 달리 농지면적을 70%에서 30%로 줄이고 나머지는 개발사업에 할당했다. 도대체 무슨 생각인 것인가(http://goo.gl/RLnp0)?


새만금을 가로막는 것도 마땅치 않아 죽갔는데, 백번 양보를 해서 농지를 만든다니 그런가 보다 하면서 꾹꾹 눌러 참았는데, 화장실 다녀오니 이야기가 달라진다? 에라이, 똥을 처먹을 놈들 같으니라고. 새만금이 가로막힌 뒤 대맛조개 50여 톤, 상괭이 244마리, 숭어 치어 1000여 마리 등이 죽음을 맞았다. 과연 누구를 위한 간척사업이었단 말인가(http://goo.gl/GK4NZ)? 칼로 흥한 자, 칼로 망한다는 말이 사실이라면, 굴삭기와 불도저로 흥한 자, 굴삭기와 불도저로 망하리라.






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From the World Bank to pension funds, efforts are under way to regulate land grabs through the creation of codes and standards. The idea is to distinguish those land deals that do meet certain criteria and should be approvingly called "investments" from those that don't and can continue to be stigmatised as land "grabs". Up to now, it was mostly international agencies that were trying to do this. Now, the private sector is engaging in a serious way to set its own rules of the game. Either way, the net result is voluntary self-regulation -- which is ineffective, unreliable and no remedy for the fundamental wrongness of these deals. Rather than help financial and corporate elites to "responsibly invest" in farmland, we need them to stop and divest. only then can the quite different matter of strengthening and supporting small-scale rural producers in their own territories and communities succeed, for the two agendas clash. In this article, GRAIN gives a quick update on what is going on.

The current wave of land grabs affecting many parts of the world is widely recognised as an incontestable reality and a significant threat. Hundreds of deals have been documented in the last few years in many sectors, from timber and mining to palm oil and pork production. Published estimates of how much land is involved range from 80 million hectares to a breathtaking 227 million. And the accounts of dispossession, violence, death and ethnic assault associated with these deals have been steadily growing. Yet, among those in power, the main political discussion under way right now is not about how to stop land grabbing. It is about how to make it work.

The international agencies, like the UN Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO), the World Bank or the UN Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD), are genuinely worried about the negative consequences of what they prefer to call large-scale land acquisitions. But the role they carve out for themselves is to harness this money in the name of old school development dogma -- the belief that foreign direct investment leads to economic growth which trickles down to benefit the majority. Their efforts thus centre around the creation of voluntary rules that governments or companies can use to discipline and guide the land deals.

Not that President Sirleaf of Liberia, Omar al-Bashir of Sudan, Cristina Fernández of Argentina or Viktor Yanukovych of Ukraine are shouting out to the international community to (help them) stop land grabbing. on the contrary, most governments want the deals, they are signing them, and they are often suppressing communities that rise up and resist expulsion or make noise about the poor wages or the loss of grazing lands for their livestock that quickly ensues. only in a few countries are legislators, courts, administrative officials and political parties trying to set some basic limits on farmland acquisitions in the face of escalating interest from foreign investors.1

Meanwhile, investors from the private sector, like pension funds and private equity groups, are marching ahead and organising their own standards for farmland acquisitions. They want to shield themselves from criticism and provide some kind of road map for "responsible" farmland investment practices. Such responsible investment tools, whether codes or principles or guidelines, also have a very plain dollars-and-cents role in protecting investments. They are designed to provide some security that some amount of financial return will be achieved, not unlike an insurance policy. For institutional investors, such as pension funds, which have a fiduciary duty to perform, this can be quite important.

The momentum -- in circles of power -- is thus clearly on the side of accommodating land grabbing and turning it into something more acceptable through rules, regulations, policy frameworks or guidelines, despite the demands for an end to the land grabs emanating from local communities, farmers' movements and indigenous peoples in the affected areas.

What's up at the World Bank?

When the current wave of massive land grabs became a clear trend in 2008-2009, the World Bank jumped into motion and proposed a very ambitious programme to facilitate their acceptance as a legitimate business practice. The initiative proposed a set of seven "principles", meant to demarcate what would be understood and accepted as "responsible" farmland investments, and a new institutional architecture, independent of the Bank, that would benchmark and certify such investments with a "label".2 The seven principles for responsible agricultural investment (RAI) were eventually co-sponsored by FAO, UNCTAD and the International Fund for Agricultutral Development (IFAD). But they were forcefully rejected by civil society -- from small farmers organisations in Japan to women's groups in Senegal -- as legitimising land grabs.3 They were even criticised within official circles as top-down or imposed.4 Soon after, the rest of the Bank's programme was slightly scaled back.

GRAPH 1: finalising PRAI

GRAPH 1: finalising PRAI

GRAPH 2: operationalising PRAI

GRAPH 2: operationalising PRAI

According to Graham Dixie, who recently replaced John Lamb as the Bank's agribusiness team leader, the Bank was initially going to "pilot test" the RAI principles through six case studies.5 This would mean implementing the principles on a test basis and learning how they work or don't work, how compliance is achieved, what adjustments are needed, etc. Dixie says they scrapped this approach because it would take too long and there was no certainty that selected projects would push through. Instead, the Bank is now "retrofitting" the RAI principles to existing large scale land investment deals. Retrofitting means examining whether and how existing projects, meet the RAI principles and drawing lessons from there. An initial 40 projects, from large-scale estate-type plantations to outgrower schemes, will be selected, one-third of them from Asia and two-thirds in Africa. Investors and communities involved in the projects will be interviewed in order to retain only 15 cases for deeper examination. (See Graph 1.6) The government of Japan is funding this work and UNCTAD will be helping with some parts of it. The review of the 40 cases will take place from August-September 2012 and the final conclusions from the indepth study of the 15 cases is to be completed by May 2013. How the RAI principles are ultimately meant to play out at an operational level is shown in Graph 2.7

The Bank's RAI initiative may be less ambitious than what was originally planned, but it is still a serious attempt to validate land deals that the Bank would like to see supported. This makes the principles for RAI, or PRAI as they are sometimes called, quite dangerous given the Bank's participation in land grabs. The World Bank Group as a whole -- the Bank itself, the International Finance Corporation and the Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA) -- is directly engaged in numerous agribusiness projects that involve transfers of control over farmland, whether through loans, equity positions, political risk insurance or other.8 The same is true, in other ways, for the Bank's partners in promoting the RAI, i.e. UNCTAD, IFAD and FAO.

Box 1: "I think we're protected"

Justin Rowlatt of the BBC World Service interviewed US businessman Neil Crowder of Chayton Capital on his 20,000 ha agribusiness venture in Zambia in March 2012. An excerpt:

JR: What if the government falls? This comes back to what I was saying before. Ownership of land is absolutely central in all societies. If you've got a venture capital firm from abroad that owns swathes of your country, you are going to be liable to be targeted if there is an upset, politically, aren't you?
NC: Potentially. I think it varies from country to country.
JR: But how do you offset political risk? Because investors must ask you about that.
NC: We have a very specific approach: we work with the World Bank. The World Bank has underwritten our assets for political risk.
JR: Hold on a second. The World Bank has given you some kind of insurance against the government changing and the attitudes toward you changing?
NC: Correct. We have a relatively unique agreement with the World Bank that we pay a premium for insurance and they guarantee against expropriation.
JR: I'm slightly surprised that the World Bank offers such insurance policies!
NC: No, because what we're doing is very - there is a very big development impact in what we're doing.
JR: Hold on. Coming back to this guarantee that you've been given by the World Bank, this kind of insurance: that means that, in a sense, there is no risk (laughter) attached to your business in Zambia.
NC: There are all kinds of risks with investing. We try to mitigate as many as we can. My own view in Zambia is that we don't need the insurance. We've been very...
JR: But you pay for it!
NC: We do pay for it. And the reason we do that is because our investors are concerned about it.
JR: Okay, well, let me put another scenario to you. Say there is some kind of drought and food becomes scarce in Zambia and your efficient farm is still producing. What happens then? Because surely the government is going to want your food to distribute to the people. What do you do in that sort of situation?
NC: Again, our political risk insurance protects us against civil disturbance or inability to use the assets for any reason and expropriation. So I think we're protected.
JR: Listen, I want some of this insurance! Where can I sign up?
NC: We've been very pleased with the World Bank and their involvement. It's not easy to get.

Source: Out of Africa? BBC World Service, 23 March 2012. Available athttp://farmlandgrab.org/post/view/20224

FAO: levelling off the playing field

The UN Food and Agriculture Organisation has been challenged by the current land grab trend every since it became clear in 2008. Jacques Diouf, the Director General at the time, warned of "neo-colonialism" while staff tried to contain the damage. FAO had to walk a tightrope from the start not just because of the blunt language used to describe what was going on (land grab), but because of the sensitivity of the issue in which key FAO funders, like the government of Saudi Arabia, were implicated. FAO's response so far has been to adopt a "laissez-faire" approach. It joined the World Bank, IFAD and UNCTAD in endorsing RAI and it held a number of consultations and conferences where the matter was analysed and discussed, most often presented as a "development opportunity". Recently, the FAO-hosted Committee on World Food Security (CFS) has taken the issue up, with direct civil society participation.

The CFS, celebrated as a platform where various players -- government, civil society and the private sector -- have a seat at the table to discuss key issues affecting world food security, first took up the land grab problem within the context of the Voluntary Guidelines (VGs) on governance of land tenure.9 The guidelines were adopted in May 2012, after a three-year process of bottom-up consultation. They aim to provide guidance, mostly to governments, on how to improve the development and implementation of land rights and tenure governance systems. They are acclaimed for having the merit of being internationally agreed to (by governments) and of putting emphasis on the rights and needs of "marginalised" people (diplomatic-speak for women, indigenous peoples and the poor).

But they are, after all, only voluntary and some see them as far away from realities on the ground. There are those who point out that it is unrealistic to expect corrupt governments or dysfunctional states to actually implement such a code. Even in a country like Liberia, led by an acclaimed Nobel Peace Prize winner, the President is on record for threatening local communities who do not accept her government's decision to allocate 300,000 ha to Malaysia's Sime Darby for a plam oil plantation.10 However, civil society groups involved in developing the guidelines feel that it is really up to different parties to push for implementation.

The VGs carry one chapter on "investment" and it is almost entirely dedicated to "responsible investments in land". This chapter does not try to stop land grabbing. Instead, it articulates how such deals "should" be pursued to cause the least damage. In only one instance are states invited to "consider promoting a range of production and investment models that do not result in the large-scale transfer of tenure rights to investors" (Article 12.6). This is as anti-landgrabbing as the VGs get and this is a problem, because the guidelines are being used now as a precedent or starting point for further policy work on land.

The CFS is now embarking on another consultation process on "responsible agricultural investment".11 Civil society groups participating in it have demanded that the discussion focus on "rai" with small letters as opposed to RAI in capital letters associated with the World Bank's seven principles. The consultation is expected to be launched by CFS in November 2012 for conclusion at the following meeting of CFS in October 2013. Civil society groups are entering the process by forcefully framing the discussion around investment by small scale farmers and food producers -- not finance capital and corporations, which is what a lot of people think of when they think of investment. While no one can predict the outcome, this approach clearly puts on the table what is really needed by way of investment: to promote food sovereignty rather than further trying to make land grabbing, and the industrial production model that goes with it, "responsible".

Box 2: Key initiatives and actors promoting "responsible" land grabbing12

Voluntary frameworks and guidelines and codes of conduct, drawn up (or in process of being elaborated) by multilateral agencies and fora:

G8 ▪ G20 ▪ African Union Framework and Guidelines on Land Policy in Africa ▪ AU Declaration on Land Issues and Challenges in Africa ▪ UN Special Rapporteur on the Right to Food Set of Minimum Principles for Land Investments ▪ Committee on Food Security Voluntary Guidelines on the Responsible Governance of Tenure (Chpt 12: Investment) ▪ World Bank, FAO, IFAD and UNCTAD ▪ APEC ▪ Pan-African Parliament

Internal corporate policies and instruments, and support advisory services:

UN PRI ▪ Principles for Responsible Investment in Farmland ▪ African Agriculture Fund ▪ IHRB draft guidelines on a rights-based approach to business land acquisition and use ▪ IFC Performance Standard 5 on Land Acquistion and Involuntary Resettlement ▪ Sustainalytics ▪Interfaith Center on Corporate Resposibility Recommended Guidelines for Responsible Farmland Investment ▪ plus the many investment funds and firms directly involved in land acquisitions which do not place their "responsible investment" policies and instruments in the public domain

Farmland investors gathered at the ritzy Waldorf Astoria hotel in New York City, April 2012

Farmland investors gathered at the ritzy Waldorf Astoria hotel in New York City, April 2012

The corporates calling their own shots

The vast majority of the capital flows going into today's largescale farmland transactions are moving through private channels. In the absence of strong public policy interventions to stop or contain it, the private sector is moving ahead to serve its own regulatory needs, without the public oversight.

Voluntary self-regulation is the name of the game for industry, with many instruments, advisory services, support groups and mechanisms being created and put into play. Socially responsible investing is a huge business in and of itself.13 Some estimate that it may account for US$ 3 trillion in terms of assets under management today.14 Whatever the scope, businesses are putting a lot of effort into trying to convince themselves, each other, regulators, traders and the public that their operations do no evil.

At the international level, the business community has come together around two general processes -- the UN Global Compact and the UN Principles for Responsible Investing -- to set standards of good corporate behaviour. Both the Compact and UN PRI are membership bodies and require adherence to certain norms. But they are voluntary and have no means of enforcement. In fact, the Compact had to throw out 2,000 of its members last year when it ran a review of who was applying the good business behaviour standards it advocates and who was not (see box). The members of the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development, the wealthiest nations of the planet, also have their own OECD Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises, which are also voluntary and toothless, and strongly promote corporate self-regulation.15

Box 3: Weapons of mass deceit

There is no consensus on what constitutes responsible investment, how it can be monitored, how it should be enforced, etc. For some, just following national laws is "responsible investing". Therefore, any figures on the size of portfolios classified as responsible or ethical should be viewed with caution. But a whole industry exists around it now. In the early years, much of the impetus came from US-based groups urging firms to pull out of South Africa, the blood diamond industry and sweatshop-style textile factories. Hence the birth of corporate social responsibility or "CSR". By 2005, the most popular approach for what by then was called socially responsible investing ("SRI" for short) among European investment institutions was screening out companies involved in arms manufacturing. Campaigns by civil society groups led to several countries such as Belgium, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg and New Zealand prohibiting investment in cluster bomb production, while pension funds in Ireland, New Zealand, Norway, and Sweden divested or banned such investments. Most recently, the Dutch parliament and cabinet moved to prevent Dutch pension firms from investing in companies involved in cluster munitions and this is now Dutch law. Despite this, in March 2012, the German Bundestag found that nine out of ten ethical investment funds in Germany were engaged in firms associated with arms manufacturing, including nuclear arms production! So how trustworthy can these ethical investment measures be?

Similarly, the UN Global Compact was launched in 2000 as a set of principles that businesses should align with to help ensure that their practices and operations in the world respect human rights, labour rights, the environment and the need to stamp out corruption. Last year, the UN announced that it had expelled more than 2,000 firms -- from Allianz in France to Barclay's Bank in Gambia -- that had signed up to but never implemented the deal. That was more than one-quarter of its membership.

With the recent Rio+20 Summit, the business sector's commitment to what is now called "environment, social and governance"-minded investment ("ESG" in corporate speak) has been refashioned to cash in on the massive financial opportunities being created around climate, energy and carbon-market initiatives. Nothing suggests that these commitments will move anywhere beyond internal and voluntary standards.

In the area of farmland deals, an array of private sector tools have been created. For example:

  • The International Finance Corporation has its own "performance standards" with regard to land acquisitions which shape its financial participation in, and support to, land deals. These standards were revised in January 2012.
  • In September 2011, almost a dozen large institutional investors, mainly pension funds, got together under the auspices of the UN PRI to construct and promote a set of Principles for Responsible Investment in Farmland. This initiative sent an important message. It showed on the one hand that the private sector will not wait for governments to consult and organise consensual frameworks for largescale land deals. More importantly it showed that the private sector does not need governments to come up with lofty frameworks because the companies are clearly capable of organising and, in this case, regulating themselves. one may not agree with this approach, but the companies are indeed setting their own standards for what constitutes responsible investment in this area. In fact, TIAA-CREF, one of the leaders of global farmland investing within the pension fund industry, will be issuing a first "sustainability report" for its own farmland assets later in 2012. This means a self-evaluation or internal report card, for public relations purposes, on how it has been meeting its own SRI performance standards.
  • A range of advisory groups and consultancy firms are eyeing corporate needs and drawing up instruments to shape global investment in farmland. The Institute for Human Rights and Business is one such outfit which is deeply involved in surveys and studies to promote responsible investment in farmland. It determined that land (and water) grabbing would be one of the top ten business and human rights issues in 2012 and embarked on a long process to consult stakeholders and draw up a set of of practices -- beyond principles -- for farmland investing by the private sector. This process is expected to reach completion later in the year. Clearly, the Institute has no means of enforcing any standards, but it does define and promote them.16

Box 2 (above) provides direct links to these and similar initiatives.

A representative of Amundi Asset Management, Europe's third largest asset manager, explained to GRAIN that there is no definition of sustainable or responsible investing, at least not in the European Union.17 As such, there is no external regulation, which means no real public accountability and a high degree of unreliability.18

The voluntary nature of private guidelines on land investment also means that companies may treat such standards as competitive business information. In some cases, companies involved in managing land deals will not disclose their SRI standards or codes of conduct for largescale land acquisitions to the public, only to their own investors. This is the case of Phatisa, a private equity firm registered in Mauritius but operating out of South Africa that manages the African Agriculture Fund on behalf of the Agence Française de Développement, the African Development Bank, Spain's Agency for International Development Cooperation and others.19Ironically, most "sustainable farmland investment" principles are expected to put transparency at the top of their list, especially transparency towards communities affected by the deals. How can an investor practice transparency if its standards are not transparent?

The whole trend of self-regulation among firms involved in land grabbing is not simply a marketing tool. It is a lucrative business in and of itself. SRI is supposed to add value to investments because it establishes a promise of good behaviour meant to generate broader results than just a bottom line. A lot of resources go into creating and deploying such standards. European cities even compete to provide an attractive domicile for SRI funds because, as a US$30 trillion and growing global business, it can clearly provide local revenue.20 But who really benefits from it?

Box 4: Whose standards?

The Swiss firm Addax Energy has a hugely controversial project to produce sugar cane on 10 000 ha of land it acquired under leasehold in Sierra Leone. The idea is to convert the sugar to ethanol and export it to Europe for use as a biofuel, and production is supposed to get going this year. Addax successfully convinced several European government agencies such as SwedFund and FMO (Entrepreneurial Development Bank), the for-profit development banks of Sweden and the Netherlands respectively, to become financial partners in the project. The European Investment Bank, on the other hand, declined to even consider the invitation. Why? Because the EIB was concerned that the project might not satisfy their enviroment-sustainability-governance (ESG) criteria. How is it that the bank of the European Union works with investment standards that are different from its own members, such as Sweden or the Netherlands? Whose standards are we supposed to trust?

Food for thought

What to do about land grabbing has driven public officials and business leaders into a convenient cul de sac. on the one hand, you have some governments and international agencies trying to draw up globally agreed upon standards for land investments that will be voluntary. on the other hand, you have the corporate sector drawing up its own standards for land investments that are also voluntary, but seem to serve the internal needs of the corporations. What good might come of this bifurcated approach to disciplining land grabs? Most likely nothing, just the status quo. Which is presumably the objective of those involved.

A lot of the current urge to regulate these deals boils down to words, specifically with the intent to differentiate "land grabs" from "investment" so as to establish not just the legality of these largescale land deals but a legitimacy as well. "A lot of our signatories don't understand the talk about land grabbing," one representative of UN PRI told us.21 For investors, there can be no land grab if laws are respected and contracts are signed. What they may not see is that the term refers to a political problem of people's interests, rights, positions or views being side stepped, no matter how legal or consultative the negotiating process or final agreement may seem. For instance, a company may make a point of consulting a village chief or community leader, but that chief or leader may not represent the interests of the women or children in the community.

There is an inherent temporal injustice as well. Many of these land deals are concluded for a very long period of time (30 to 99 years), changing the fate of up to three generations of community members yet to come. Any transaction committing large areas of rural land to someone else's agenda for 30, 50 or 99 years is taking that land away from a lot of other possible uses and people. They are, for all intents and purposes, land grabs.

Moreover, while the private sector tries to distinguish above-board deals (which they would like to see understood as bona fide "investments") from less respectable ones (which can continue to carry the stigma of "land grab"), many of these land deals are not investments and don't deserve the label of "investment" no matter how above board or responsible or bona fide. Quite often the deals are speculative; the lands are not developed or put into production but simply flipped after a number of years.22 Other deals are for rent-seeking or rent-capturing purposes.23 The objective in these cases is to extract financial rent, not to develop the productive capacities of the land and build wealth in the community, which often imply a lot of additional costs. If the business model is to maximise profits, then it follows that costs -- including wages, land or water fees, etc. -- will be pushed down as far as possible. This is clearly not investment, not in any socially positive sense.

Box 5: Pseudo investment

Accounting for the situation in Indonesia, John McCarthy of Australia National University describes what is going on this way: "In many cases, regardless of the legal provisions, land is acquired without the intention of using it for the purposes outlined in the development license. Many are ‘virtual acquisitions’, which allow investors to appropriate subsidies, obtain bank loans using land permits as collateral, extract timber, or speculate on future increases in land values without developing the land. For instance, state agencies have granted oil palm plantation licenses on over 26 million hectares of land.  However, Indonesia’s 33 large oil palm corporations only manage to plant around 300,000-400,000 of new oil palm each year."24

The more fundamental problem with efforts to come up with rules for responsible investment in farmland is that the rules are always about making the project work for the investor. Local communities, soils, watersheds, local labour markets and even the domestic food security situation in the host country are treated as risk factors that need to be mitigated. The objective is to manage costs, including those connected to reputational risks, to ensure an acceptable return. The rules for responsible farmland investment are thus for the investor, for whom taking care of the fallout for local people becomes another cost of doing business -- and one that companies can make profits from to boot.

The credibility of "socially responsible investing" in global farmland is extremely shaky at best. Those who play by it seem to live in their own self-referential world, and can point to no real impact. This is no surprise. Other sectors where this has been tried out -- sustainable cotton, sustainable soy, responsible palm oil, timber, banking and whatnot -- have a profoundly blotted track record.25

Slavery does not get regulated. It gets outlawed. In the same manner, any serious approach to fighting hunger and poverty requires securing people's own control over their lands and territories, not guidelines and rules on how corporations and foreign investors can somehow do a good job of it themselves. What we need is not responsible farmland investment, but divestment. By this we mean that rather than trying to make this new trend of financialising farmland work, these deals need to be stopped and undone, with the lands restituted to the communities that lived from them. And instead of promoting the growth of industrial agriculture, we need to strengthen family- and community-based food sovereignty approaches, across the world. Initiatives are being taken in these directions, aiming to choke capital flows into firms with a history of land grabbing or into funds specifically set up to peddle rights to farmland, bolstered by advocacy and political pressure to support small-scale family-based farming systems and local markets. While it is a huge and uphill battle, it's clear that we need to stop the financing of land grabs, not make it responsible.

Acronyms

APEC - Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation
CFS -  Committee on World Food Security
CSM - Civil Society Mechanism (CFS)
CSR - corporate social responsibility
ESG - environmental, social and governance issues
EU - European Union
FAO - UN Food and Agriculture Organisation
FMO - Entrepreneurial Development Bank (Netherlands)
G20 - Group of 20
G8 - Group of 8
GM(O) - genetically modified organism
IFAD - International Fund for Agricultural Development (UN)
IFC - International Finance Corporation (World Bank)
LIBOR - London Inter Bank Offered Rate
MIGA - Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (World Bank)
OECD - Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development
PRI - Principles for Responsible Investing (UN)
rai - responsible agricultural investment (as discussed by CFS)
RAI - Responsible Agricultural Investment (in upper case, refers to 7 principles sponsored by World Bank, FAO, IFAD and UNCTAD)
ROPPA - West African Network of Peasant Organisations
SRI - socially responsible investing
TIAA-CREF - Teachers Insurance and Annuity Association - College Retirement Equities Fund (US)
UNCTAD - UN Conference on Trade and Development
VG(s) - voluntary guidelines on land tenure (CFS)


1 The chief examples are: Argentina, Brazil, Colombia and Uruguay in Latin America; Australia and New Zealand in Asia; and the Democratic Republic of Congo in Africa. See some discussion in UNCTAD, "World Investment Report 2012", Geneva, July 2012, pp 79-80,http://www.unctad-docs.org/UNCTAD-WIR2012-Full-en.pdf

2 This initial vision of the Bank is laid out in John Lamb's presentation to the East Asia and Pacific Regional Agribusiness Trade and Investment Conference organised by the World Bank together with the International Finance Corporation in July 2009:http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTEAPREGTOPRURDEV/Resources/JohnLamb2.pdf. As to the certificate or label, it's worth noting that French banks and institutions have also pushed for a label approach to distinguish land investments from land grabs. See the report "Sales of agricultural assets to foreign investors in developing countries", Strategic Analysis Centre, Office of the Prime Minister, Paris, 29 July 2010.http://www.strategie.gouv.fr/en/content/report-sales-agricultural-assets-foreign-investors-developing-countries

3 The principles can be viewed here: http://unctad.org/en/Pages/DIAE/G-20/PRAI.aspx

4 As World Bank staff put it in their long-awaited book on land grabbing, "Observers noted that a broad consultation about these principles has yet to happen." Klaus Deininger and Derek Byerlee, et al, "Rising global interest in farmland", World Bank, Washington DC, 2011, p. 3. http://siteresources.worldbank.org/DEC/Resources/Rising-Global-Interest-in-Farmland.pdf

5 The details in the paragraph come mainly from personal communications with Grahame Dixie on 25 February 2012, confirmed by further communications with Hafiz Mirza on 5 June 2012 and members of the Civil Society Mechanism at the CFS in May and June 2012.

6 Graph taken from Brian Baldwin (IFAD), "Principles for Responsible Agricultural Investment that Respects Rights, Livelihoods and Resources (PRAI)", power point presentation on behalf of PRAI Inter-Agency Working Group (IAWG-UNCTAD, the World Bank, IFAD, FAO), CFS workshop, Rome, 2 July 2012,http://www.csm4cfs.org/files/SottoPagine/61/rai_wshop2july_compilation_written_inputs.pdf

7 Grahame Dixie, World Bank, "Responsible investments in agriculture: what do we know, what are we learning and what to do about it," presentation to Global Ag Investing Asia, Singapore, 5-7 December 2011. http://www.cvent.com/events/global-aginvesting-asia-2011/custom-21-489ef1acfc6a4521b447a6756eb47235.aspx

8 A range of organisations and journalists have been documenting the involvement of the Bank in land grab deals. In 2012, Friends of the Earth International issued a major report on what has been happening in Uganda: http://www.foei.org/en/media/archive/2012/new-report-uncovers-world-bank-funded-land-grab-in-uganda. A classic case of MIGA's involvement is Neil Crowder's project in Zambia, captured by the BBC World Service here:http://farmlandgrab.org/post/view/20224. In 2011, the Oakland Institute produced various reports on the issue, summarised by the Bretton Woods Project here:http://www.brettonwoodsproject.org/art-568890. The BWP produced a more recent summary in 2012, available here: http://www.brettonwoodsproject.org/art-570786. The website farmlandgrab.org, run by GRAIN, tracks all such materials in one dedicated section:http://farmlandgrab.org/cat/show/88.

10 See Silas Kpanan'ayoung Siakor and Rachael S. Knight, "A Nobel Laureate’s problem at home", New York Times, 20 January 2012. http://www.nytimes.com/2012/01/21/opinion/in-liberia-a-nobel-laureates-problem.html

11 Documents recording this process are available at the CFS Civil Society Mechanism website: http://www.csm4cfs.org/policy_working_groups-6/agricultural_investment-7/

12 A basic inventory was prepared by UNCTAD for a 2 July 2012 workshop at the FAO in Rome: http://www.csm4cfs.org/policy_working_groups-6/agricultural_investment-7/phase_1_july_2_rai_workshop-60/

13 The terminology can be bewildering for outsiders. At first, there was ethically targeted investing (ETI). This gave way to socially responsible investing (SRI). Today, the focus is on environment, sustainability and corporate governance (ESG) issues. In all cases, we are talking about passing a filter over investments in terms of their impact on the environment, respect for labour law and human rights, etc. Sometimes the screening is negative, to avoid something. Sometimes it's positive, such as when companies engage in social projects to help communities in areas affected by the investment. In some cases, the criteria apply only to the investment, not the investor. And so on.

14 TIAA-CREF, "2012 Socially Responsible Investing Report", July 2012. http://www.tiaa-cref.org/public/sri2012/index.html

16 Kelly Davina Scott, IHRB, personal communication, 3 May 2012.

17 Robin Bonsey, of Amundi's SRI team, personal communication, 3 July 2012. Amundi is presently studying the land grab issue in order to devise SRI grades related to farmland acquisitions, both direct and indirect, for its clients.

18 The LIBOR rate at which banks lend money to each other, which recently became headline news since Barclay's was found manipulating it, is also a voluntary construct. It is drawn up on a daily basis from information volunteered by a consortium of private banks. Its unreliability not only ended up costing many people a lot of money, but it clearly fostered criminal behaviour.

19 Izelle le Roux-Owen, Phatisa, personal communication, 14 April 2012.

20 Daniel Brooksbank, "Analysis: the race to become Europe’s responsible investment fund domicile," Responsible Investor, 25 June 2012. http://www.responsible-investor.com/home/article/analysis_responsible_investment_fund_domicile/P0/

21 Katie Beith, UN PRI Secretariat, personal communication with GRAIN, 3 July 2012.

22 See "Land grabbing by pension funds and other financial institutions must be stopped", civil society statement against the finance of land grabs, Brussels, 26 June 2012, Note 1.http://www.foeeurope.org/sites/default/files/press_releases/joint_statement_on_the_finance_of_land_grabs_june_2012_en_1.pdf

23 See Michel Merlet, "Investment: Magic word or trap?", aGter, August 2012,http://www.agter.asso.fr/article852_en.html, and H. Cochet and M. Merlet, "Land grabbing and the share of the value added in agricultural processes. A new look at the ditribution of land revenues", paper presented at the international conference on global land grabbing, University of Sussex, 6-8 April 2011, http://www.agter.asso.fr/article604_en.html.

24 "Energy, food and climate crises: are they driving an Indonesian ‘land grab’?", East Asia Forum, 17 July, 2012 http://www.eastasiaforum.org/2012/07/17/energy-food-and-climate-crises-are-they-driving-an-indonesian-land-grab/

25 See "Audits reveal no benefits from RTRS certification", CEO, Friends of the Earth and GM Freeze, 22 May 2012. http://www.corporateeurope.org/pressreleases/2012/audits-reveal-no-benefits-rtrs-certification


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