벼농사에서 수생생물의 유용성과 활용에 대한 계획

들어가며

1998년 9월 7~9일, 이집트 카이로에서 개최된 국제 벼위원회(IRC)의 19차 회의는 벼농사에 기반을 둔 농업 체계(Halwart, 1999)에서 행하는 양어에 대한 전망과 경향에 대한 정보를 제공했다. IRC 회원국, 지역과 국제적 기관 및 FAO 위원회는 "벼논양어"에 대해 두 가지 권고사항을 제시했다.

각 정부는 벼논양어를 식량안보를 강화하고 지속가능한 농촌개발을 보장하는 수단으로 고려해야 한다. 민간 부문이 치어의 공급을 강화시키도록 더 많은 노력을 기울여야 한다. 

• 태국에서 저지대의 천둥지기 벼농사에서 벼논양어를 성공시킨 사례에 더 많은 관심을 쏟아야 한다. 이 체계는 물을 절약한다는 측면에서 매력적이다. 

같은 해, FAO와 생물다양성 협약의 사무국은 "농업생물다양성과 농업생태계 기능의 유지 -농업생태계와 생산 체계에서 농업생물다양성의 보존과 지속가능한 이용을 위한 기회, 장려책, 접근법"에 대한 국제 기술 토론회를 12월 2~4일 로마에서 개최했다. 사례 연구에서는 통합해충관리법을 사용하여 쌀 생산을 강화시킨 벼농사 농민도 다양한 수생생물에 의해 향상된 혜택을 받았다고 지적했다. 토론회에서는 모든 농업생물다양성, 특히 농업생태계 수준에서 그 보존과 지속가능한 이용을 위한 간섭의 네 가지 영역을 우선시해야 한다고 결론을 내렸다:

• 정보, 평가, 지표

• 연구, 개발

• 인식 향상, 역량 구축

• 정책과 농기구의 개발

토론회에서 세 가지 권고사항이 나왔다:

• 농업생물다양성에 대한 이해의 확대

• 어떠한 생산 체계에서라도 중요한 공헌을 한다고 인정

• 활동과 절차의 통합과 협동을 개선

지속가능한 개발 분야의 모든 조직은 특히 농업생태계 차원에서 농업생물다양성의 보존과 지속가능한 활용에 대한 행동 계획을 개발하기 위하여 그들의 정책과 프로그램, 활동에 농업생물다양성을 추가로 통합하고 주류로 넣어 작업할 필요가 있다고 강조했다. 농업생물다양성의 중요성과 가치에 관한 모든 이해당사자의 인식향상은 상위의 문제로 인정되었다(Aarnink et al., 1999).

논과 기타 수생환경의 수생자원은 특히 동남아시아 빈곤층의 동물단백질 섭취에 큰몫을 담당한다. 안타깝게도 이렇게 음식에 공헌하는 것이 자명하지만, 농촌 가구의 식량안보에서 수생자원의 역할은 계절적 복잡성과 공간적으로 다양한 자원과 환경, 이해당사자의 활동 때문에 부실하게 다루어졌다. 그러나 빈곤층을 위한 정책이나 자원 할당 결정을 입안할 때 정책 결정자들에게는 증거가 필요하다. 따라서 이에 대한 지지를 확대하기 위해서는 농촌 빈곤층의 식량안보와 빈곤 완화에서 수생자원의 역할에 대한 인식을 향상시켜야 한다. 

위의 결론과 권고사항을 기반으로, 때마침 네덜란드 정부와 FAO 생물다양성 부서와 수산부 등에서 지원한 정규 프로그램에 대한 추가적인 재정지원은 아시아의 벼농사에서 수생생물의 유용성과 활용에 대한 지역적 활동을 시작하게 했다. 

벼논양어 체계

벼논양어 체계는 크게 물고기의 출처에 따라 “포획”과 “양어” 체계로 분류할 수 있다. 포획 체계에서는 야생 물고기가 홍수가 났을 때 인접한 수로 등에서 논으로 들어가 자라고 알을 낳는다. 한편 양어 체계에서는 논에 의도적으로 물고기와 함께 또는 교대로 벼를 재배한다. 논은 치어나 식용 물고기를 생산하는 데 사용된다. 비축하는 데 쓰일 종묘의 크기와 물고기를 양식할 시기의 길이, 치어나 식용 물고기에 대한 시장의 수요에 따라서 달라진다(Halwart, 1999). 또한 태국에서처럼 관리 체계의 부분으로 비축된 물고기의 대부분을 야생종에게 잡아먹히게 하는 중간 체계도 있다. 이러한 손실은 지역 시장에서 야생 물고기에 대한 높은 부가가치 때문에 허용된다(Setboonsarng, 1994).

아시아의 많은 국가는 쌀을 주식으로 하면서 물고기를 주요한 동물단백질 공급원으로 삼는다는 점에서 “벼-물고기 사회”라고 할 수 있다(Demaine and Halwart, 2001).

벼-물고기 사회인 아시아의 국가

벼와 물고기의 유용성은 예전부터 번영과 식량안보에 연결되어 있었다. 예를 들어 태국에서는 13세기 초의 왕인 Ramkhamhaeng의 비문에 부와 안정성의 지표로 “물에서는 물고기가 논에서는 벼가”라고 새겨져 있다. 베트남에서는 “벼와 물고기는 어머니와 딸 같다”고 이야기한다.

관개, 천수, 깊은물대기 체계에서 대부분의 벼 재배는 물고기나 다른 수생생물에게 적합한 환경을 제공한다. 가정에서 소비하는 물고기의 대부분은 전통적으로 논에서 잡았다. 농경지로 습지를 전환시키고 벼 생산을 강화함과 함께, 어업은 감소하고 농민들은 동물성 단백질의 대체원으로서 양식업에 몰두했다. 그러나 그러한 압력은 똑같은 것이 아니었고, 지역의 인구를 위하여 적절한 생계를 제공하기 위하여 계속하여 지역의 범람원에서 어업을 행하는 곳이 있다. 

고기잡이의 성질은 계절과 강과의 거리에 따라 달라진다. 캄보디아에서 우기에 주요한 고기잡이가 논에서 이루어진다. 이 시기에 고기잡이가 크게 열린다. 상대적으로 물고기가 풍요로운 때이다. 이는 또한 물고기가 시원한 계절에 도피하여 돌아오는 때이다. 더운 계절의 초기에, 일부 농민들은 깊이 파 놓은 연못에서 물고기를 잡는다. 그곳 중 일부는 원래 선의의 계획에 따라 물고기를 위해 파 놓은 문화에 따른 것이다. 크게 파 놓은 연못에는 고부가가치의 Channa striata(잡히는 양의 25~40%) or Clarias catfish (35~40%)와 같은 "검은 물고기"를 300kg 정도 확보한다. 이렇게 공기호흡을 하는 종들은 물높이에 변동이 많은 늪 같은 논 환경에서 잘 적응하고, 매우 고마운 야생 물고기이다. 그들은 육식이라 다른 물고기들을 잡아먹을 수 있지만 태국의 지역 시장에서 양식한 물고기의 2배나 되는 가격을 받는다. 캄보디아에 가져온 높은 가격이 그 지역에서 농민은 가난하지만 모든 물고기가 그렇지는 않다고 Gregory와 Guttman(1996)이 주장하도록 이끌었다. 그러한 맥락에서 물고기 양어는 불필요하다; 그러나 짧은 거리 이상의 어업생산성으로 표시된 변화가 있다는 것은 주목해야 한다. 

최근의 활동 요약

포획과 양어라는 체계에서 수생 생물의 유용성과 활용에 대한 몇몇 연구가 2000~2001년에 걸쳐 시작되었다. 

야생 물고기의 높은 유용성은 보통 큰 강의 범람원에서 포획 체계의 개발을 선호한다. 포획 벼논양어에 대한 사례 연구는 따라서 메콩강 상류와 하류의 범람원에서 시작되었다. 중국의 윈난성 시솽반나(Xishuangbanna)가 하나이고, 캄보디아의 캄퐁톰(Kampong Thom)성이 또 하나이다. 

외떨어진 산간 지역에서 야생 물고기의 상대적으로 낮은 유용성은 양어가 출현하여 발전하도록 만들었다. 지역에 적응한 물고기 변종을 활용하는 토착 벼논양어는 베트남 북부와 라오스의 고원에서 발견된다. 이러한 벼논양어 사회에 초점을 맞춘 사례연구는 베트남의 Hoa Binh과 Son La, Lai Chau 성 등과 라오스의 Xieng Khouang과 Houa Phanh 성에서 시작되었다.

연구들의 목적은 살아 있는 수생 자원의 유용성과 벼농사 농민의 활용 방법에 대한 정보를 수집하고 기록하는 것이다. 특정 지역에서 농민의 전통지식에 관하여 기술을 배우고 참여하는 방법을 적용하려고 특별한 관심을 기울이고 있다. 

연구 보고서는 비슷한 패턴을 따를 것으로 예상된다. 수생 종들은 농민들의 도구와 기술에 의해 수집된다. 또한 농민들은 지역의 언어로 종을 구분하고 이름을 기록한다. 작은 종은 보호하고 큰 종은 참조 목적으로 사진을 찍었다. 모든 종이 표본추출에 대한 지역적/과학적 이름과 정보, 수집과 활용을 위한 특별한 관찰 및 가능하면 소비에 대한 정보를 제공하는 데이터베이스에 목록화되었다. 

이 논문을 준비하는 시기에(2002년 1월), 중국과 캄보디아의 사례 연구가 막 끝났다. 라오스와 베트남의 사례연구는 각각 2001년 12월과 2002년 1월에 시작되었다.

연구 결과의 초기 분석은 연구 지역에서 논 생태계가 지역 사람들에 의해 널리 활용되는 풍부한 수생생물다양성을 지니고 있다는 것을 밝혔다. 종 다양성과 지역 사람들에 대한 중요성 측면에서 가장 중요한 집단은 물고기이다. 캄보디아와 중국에서는 60~70종의 물고기 종이 발견되었는데, 대부분 신선한 상태나 발효시킨 젓갈로 소비했다. 몇 가지 종은 뼈를 발라내거나 작은 조각으로 발효시켜, 굽고 소금에 절이고 훈제하거나 물고기 국을 준비하는 데 쓰였다. 신선하거나 가공된 물고기는 보통 매끼에서 주요한 단백질 공급원이 되었다. 

물고기의 자가 소비와 판매에 관해서는, 캄보디아의 사례 연구에 따르면 물고기 철에는 5인가구에서 날마다 평균 약 1kg의 신선한 물고기를 소비한다. 이 가구에서 건기에는 발효시킨 젓갈 약 20kg이 필요하다. 이외에 잡힌 모든 것은 시장에 내다팔 것이다. 사용하는 어로 도구에 따라서, 농민은 하루에 잘하면 15~20kg의 물고기를 잡을 수 있는데, 물고기 철에는 하루에 평균 10kg 미만을 잡는다. 중국에 대한 연구에서도 벼농사에 기반하는 곳에서 일용식의 일부로 물고기와 다른 수생 생물의 중요성에 대해 강조한다. 특히 시솽반나에 사는 타이족의 벼농사가 그러하다. 수생 생물을 소비하는 수준은 아마 꾸준히 유지되었을 텐데, 오늘날 소비량의 1/5에서 1/3이 벼농사에 기반한 포획에서 오며 10년 전에는 물고기 요구량의 절반을 공급했을 것이라 추정한다.

또한 갑각류, 연체류, 양서류, 곤충, 파충류와 수생 생물 여러 종을 직접적으로 인간의 먹을거리로 가공되거나 동물의 사료, 미끼 또는 약으로 활용된다. 

캄보디아 연구에서 나온 사례는 부록에 실었다. 접근법을 보여주고 예비 연구결과를 제공한다. 

전망

There are indications that the availability of these aquatic resources is declining. Farmers in Xishuangbanna claim that fish are becoming less abundant and that the quantity of aquatic organisms collected in one day is the equivalent of what was collected in just one hour a decade ago. Similarly, the Cambodian study indicates that fish catches have greatly decreased over the past two decades. While the growing human population and the consequent increased fishing pressure on aquatic resources play an important role, management strategies are thought to bear the main part of the blame: pesticide use, destruction of fish breeding grounds and illegal fishing practices, such as electrofishing or chemical poisoning. Future development must address these threats, and in rice management particular attention should be paid to pesticide use and habitat destruction.

The Chinese and Cambodian studies have so far yielded very interesting results and insights. Further analysis and follow-up are now required, as the studies are limited to certain areas and time spans. The Vietnamese and the Laotian studies are expected to be completed in 2002, and this type of study will then be expanded to other countries in the region. Findings are furthermore expected to serve as important background information for activities in other regions such as West Africa, where a joint FAO/WARDA Workshop on Integrated Irrigation and Aquaculture is planned to be held in July 2002 in Bouaké, Côte d’Ivoire.

The initial goal of these studies - i.e. to document the availability and use of aquatic organisms in rice-based farming and to raise awareness of all stakeholders about the aquatic biodiversity in rice - has been partially achieved through the participatory process followed in the studies. However, further activities are planned in the form of documentation and workshops so as to make a larger audience aware of the results.

Studies in this integrated area of rice farming and fisheries require cooperation and exchange between the different disciplines. Close collaboration within FAO is expected to continue, particularly among the Agricultural Divisions dealing with plant production and protection and with land and water use. The findings are expected to be important for upcoming meetings, such as the newly established intergovernmental Sub-Committee on Aquaculture of the Committee on Fisheries (which will meet for the first time in April 2002 in Beijing), and for external partnerships and collaborative programmes, in particular for a recently initiated joint activity between FAO, DFID (Department for International Development, UK), VSO (Voluntary Service Overseas) and NACA (Network of Aquaculture Centres in Asia-Pacific), entitled Support to Regional Aquatic Resource Management (STREAM).

참고자료

Aarnink, W., Bunning, S., Collette, L. & Mulvany, P. 1999. Sustaining agricultural biodiversity and agro-ecosystem functions - opportunities, incentives and approaches for the conservation and sustainable use of agricultural biodiversity in agro-ecosystems and production systems. In Proceedings of a FAO/CBD International Technical Workshop, 2-4 Dec. 1998, FAO, Rome.

Demaine, H. & Halwart, M. 2001. An overview of rice-based small-scale aquaculture. In IIRR, IDRC, FAO, NACA& ICLARM. Utilizing different aquatic resources for livelihoods in Asia: a resource book, p. 189-197. International Institute of Rural Reconstruction, International Development Research Centre, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Network of Aquaculture Centers in Asia-Pacific and International Center for Living Aquatic Resources Management. 416 pp.

Gregory, R. & Guttman, H. 1996. Capture and culture ricefield fisheries in Cambodia. In Nesbitt, H.J. ed. Rice production in Cambodia, p. 159-173. Cambodia-IRRI-Australia Project, Phnom Penh, Cambodia.

Halwart, M. 1999. Fish in rice-based farming systems - Trends and prospects. In Tran, D.V. ed. Proceedings of the 19th Session of the International Rice Commission, 7-9 September 1998, Cairo, Egypt. FAO, Rome.

Appendix - Traditional use and availability of aquatic organisms in rice field ecosystems of Kampong Thom Province, Kingdom of Cambodia

들어가며

거대한 호수의 생태계

The Tonle Sap, also known as the Great Lake in central Cambodia is the heart of Cambodia’s fresh water fisheries. It is the largest fresh water lake in Southeast Asia and one of the richest freshwater fishing grounds in the world. Its hydrological characteristics are mainly influenced by the Mekong River who fills the lake during the rainy season through the Tonle Sap River, reversing its flow to the sea for several months. In the dry season, the lake covers an area of 2’500 - 3’000 square kilometers at an average depth of only one to two meters. In the rainy season the area increases to 9’000 -14’000 square kilometers and the depth reaches 9 - 11 meters.

Abelt of freshwater mangroves known as the flooded forest surrounds the lake. This gradually changes to bushes and finally grassland with increasing distance from the lake. The floodplains are surrounded by low hills, which are naturally covered with evergreen or deciduous dry Dipterocarp forest. The figures below show a transect from the lake to the hills at the end of the wet and the dry season respectively.

The flooded forest and the surrounding floodplain are of great importance for Cambodia’s fresh water fisheries. At the beginning of the flooding, many fish species leave the lake and the larger ponds for the forest to spawn. The young fish then move out into the floodplains to feed. At the end of the flooding, the fish follow the receding waters back to the lake and through the Tonle Sap River to the Mekong.

캄보디아의 벼논어업

Traditionally the people living around the lake were planting rice varieties in those areas subject to deep flooding that could cope with the high water levels by elongating their stems up to five meters with a maximum growth of ten centimeters per day. This floating rice was broadcast at the start of the rainy season on previously ploughed fields in areas naturally covered with bushes or grass. At greater distance to the lake were the flooding is not as deep, normal wet rice varieties are transplanted into the fields once the flood has reached them.

At the end of the flooding, rice is planted in the receding water, which is sometimes held back by dams for that purpose. The water present in the soil has to be enough for the development of this so-called “receding rice”. Controlled irrigation, which in Cambodia was present during the Angkorian period, is nowadays the exception. While pesticide and fertilizer use plays a minor role in the traditional floating rice varieties, it is more common in transplanted receding rice with modern varieties.

As a saying goes in Cambodia “once there is water, there is also fish” and this is especially true for the different rice field ecosystems of the country. The importance of the rice field fisheries however is often underestimated. The Cambodian Office of Fisheries has in the past mainly concentrated on the management of the fishing lots in the great lake. This is due to the revenues generated through the auctioning of these lots for a period of three to five years to business people for commercial exploitation.

Statistics on the productivity of these commercial lots are available and fairly accurate. Instead, for rice field fisheries the figures available differ widely, depending on the area where and the year when the respective study has been conducted. Figures vary from as low as 25 kg (Spiller, 1985) through 100 kg (Gregory et al.) up to 150 kg per ha and year (Ali, 1990). Ahmed et al. (1998) use figures from 25 - 61 kg per hectare and year to estimate the annual production of Cambodia’s rice field fisheries. Multiplied with the 1.8 million hectares of Cambodian rice fields they reach an annual production of 45’000 to 110’000 tons, amounting to 15 - 25 percent of Cambodia’s total annual fish catch. This extrapolation however is a rather unreliable method of assessment, since the heterogeneity in agro-ecological conditions and differences in the microenvironments of rice fields result in a variable productivity (Little et al., 1996). Generally speaking, there is a tendency to underestimate the importance of rice field fisheries since they tend to yield only small amounts of fish at a time, but on a regular basis and for many people involved.

Also the diversity of aquatic organisms found in the rice field ecosystem varies according to the place where and the year when the respective study was conducted. Shams and Hong find 35 fish species in a study conducted in Kampong Thom Province in 1998, Gum finds 39 fish species during a survey in Battambang 1997. Not restricted to rice field ecosystems, Rainboth (1996) reports 500 species of fish for Cambodia, stating that the real number is certainly greater and perhaps even much greater.

연구

연구의 범위

This study was conducted from the middle of September to the middle of December 2001 in Kampong Thom Province, Cambodia. Samples of fish and other organisms from the rice field ecosystems have been taken at eight different locations in three of the eight districts of Kampong Thom Province: Stoung, Stueng Saen and Santuk. Two of the places were located closer to the Great Lake with direct access to the flood plain, the other ones at various distances from it along highway No. 6.

Along with the samples, information has been collected on the availability, the tools used for collecting and the ultimate use of each species along with the peoples’ preferences among the different species. Any additional information found has been added under the heading of traditional knowledge and observations.

연구의 한계

Due to the start in the middle of September, the beginning of the fishing season has been missed. No attempt has been made to measure the weight of fish caught by the fisher-folks involved in the study, since the day to day variability of the fish catches was too great and the scope of the study limited to a short time and a few places only.

Certain groups of animals are underrepresented here, since according to the local people their season is either before the start or after the end of the study. Important here are water insects, crabs, and frogs. And while the study was started focussing on aquatic animals collected from the rice fields, aquatic plants were added to the scope only later.

사용한 방법

To collect information from the local people, several different methods have been used in a time sequence. The start was made by Participatory Rural Appraisals (PRA’s) in three villages. With the initial information collected in this way, the second step was the collection of species caught by the local people. At the end of the season, single and group interviews were used to verify the information previously collected.

PRA

As the first step, PRA’s were conducted in three villages of Kampong Thom Province: Doun L’a in Stoung District, Panha Chi in Stueng Saen District and Tboung Krapeu in Santuk District. In this warming up exercise, the people were asked during a village meeting to enumerate the aquatic animals they collect from their rice fields, their uses etc. At the same time it served as an introduction to the people to ensure that they know what the purpose of the following regular visits in their village would be.

Species collection

During the time from the end of September 2001 to the beginning of December 2001, the researchers went to the field almost every day. The maps in the annex show the villages were the collections were made. The collection points were the sites where people went to fish in or near the rice field ecosystems. The drawing below shows a typical situation in Kampong Thom: the road is built on a dam. Soil for it has been excavated on both sides, forming canals left and right of the road. During the rainy season these canals are filled with water and directly connected to the surrounding rice fields. People gather to catch fish near bridges and culverts, which are like a bottleneck for water, and fish.

At points like this as well as within the rice fields specimens were collected and pictures of the various species encountered were taken. Samples of every organism smaller then 15 cm were collected and preserved. The pictures taken were developed locally and then scanned and processed with the computer.

While collecting the specimen, the fisher-folks were asked to give information on the availability of the species found as well as on their uses and the preferences of the people for them. At the same time the various fishing tools used were documented.

Interviews

At the end of the fishing season, the information collected previously was consolidated and verified in single and group interviews conducted in the villages were the collections were made. Since the people were by then already familiar with the researchers, no initial shyness had to be overcome. People were talking freely about the aquatic animals they used to collect and also about the difficulties and problems they encounter.

결과

Species found

The species found have been categorized into seven groups: fishes, reptiles, crustaceans, amphibians, mollusks, insects and plants. They are discussed separately below.

Fishes: they are by far the most important group, both in species diversity and in importance for the local population. For most Khmer people fish is the primary source of protein and fish either fresh or processed is part of every meal. The fishing season for rice field fisheries in Kampong Thom starts in August and ends in December when the water recedes and leaves the fields dry.

In the course of this study 70 different species have been found in the rice field ecosystem. They were identified as far as possible, using Rainboth’s field guide. Of these 70 species, 25 were abundant and another 12 species were still commonly seen in the catches. As most favored rated were 24 species, however only four of them were abundant as well: the chevron snakehead, broad-headed and walking catfishes and the swamp eel. Eleven of the most favored species are considered rare. The availability of the fishes changed in the course of the fishing season, some were more common at its beginning, others were found rather later. Some fishes came in waves, abundant one day and rare the next. The local people claim, that they have seen the eggs of four species within the rice fields, three of them among the most favored fish: the two catfishes mentioned above and the chevron snakehead. The fourth species is the climbing perch, found abundantly but not as well liked as the other three.

Most fish is eaten fresh, but there are a number of ways to preserve fish. Atypical Khmer fish preserve is Prahoc, fermented fish paste. It is made from the least favored fish or from those left over that cannot be sold as fresh any more. Other ways to preserve fish it to place it in salt, to dry it or to smoke it over wood fire. The latter results in a highly priced product, which is seen less and less due to the lack of firewood needed for the processing. Two other types of processed fish command high prices in the markets: mam and trey ngiat. Both are made from the filet of large fishes like the snakeheads, marble fishes, catfishes and other favored species. Mam is made by fermenting the filet while trey ngiat is sun dried.

Reptiles: Seven snakes and one turtle were found during this study. Since no literature on reptiles is locally available, no proper identification could be made. Snakes are well liked for food and in some areas have been seriously reduced through over-collection for sale to the cities. From the seven snakes found only one was found in abundance, two more were commonly seen, especially in the deep water rice fields of Roluos. Snakes are usually eaten fresh, only one snake has been reportedly used as a traditional medicine: preserved in alcohol it is said to enhance the appetite. Snakes can be found in the rice fields throughout the year.

The turtle found is considered uncommon, it has been seen only twice within the course of the study and only in Roluos. It is considered a delicacy and it is also reportedly used as a traditional medicine. A very destructive way of hunting turtles has been described for the dry season: the flooded forest - then dry - is set to fire and the turtles would come out of their hiding places to escape. In the rice fields, turtles can only be found in the months from August to December, during the rest of the year they are found in the flooded forest.

Crustaceans: Five species of crabs and one shrimp have been collected during the study. In his study on rice field crabs van Amerongen stated that the rice field crabs found by him all belong to the same genus Somanniathelphusa. He writes, that morphological differences could not be observed, only color and size vary. For the crabs found during this study at least some morphological differences can be seen, thus a question mark has been added to the generic name. All but one of the crabs are abundant, however, they are not well liked. Commonly used as bait or as feeds for pigs, people would eat them in time of scarcity. They are generally considered a pest in the rice fields were they feed on the rice plants and can do considerable damage to a newly planted field. They are chiefly collected from June to December.

Also the shrimp is found in abundance, it is used for food either fresh or dried or processed into shrimp sauce. Shrimps can be found in the rice fields from September to December.

Amphibians: Only two amphibians were found in the course of the study, one toad and one frog. Since literature on amphibians is not available locally, no identification could be made. Both species are reportedly abundant, however, they are found chiefly early in the rainy season from June to September. The frog is very much liked for food and during the season commonly seen in the markets. The toad is used as an anthelmintic for cattle but it is also eaten. It is sometimes exported to China.

Molluscs: One snail was found within the rice field ecosystem, other snails and also shells were only collected from the rivers and the lakes in the study area. While it is liked better then crabs it cannot compete with the fish that can be found in the rice fields. It is then rather used as bait to catch fish or fed to the pigs. Also for the snail, no identification could be made because of the lack in literature available locally. It is collected in the rice fields from June to December.

Insects: Two water insects were found to be of importance for the local people during this study: a giant water bug from the Belostomatid family and a water beetle probably from the Dytiscid family. Both of them are used as finger foods and both command good prices in the markets during their season which follows the season for frogs: from September to October. The giant water bug is also used as traditional medicine: mixed with alcohol it is given to women after birth. The water beetle is abundantly available; the giant water bug is still considered common.

Plants: Apart from the rice itself there are a number of other plants found within the rice field ecosystem, which are utilized by the people. In the course of this study, 13 species have been recorded, six of which are marketed. The other seven species are chiefly used as feeds or consumed locally they have no market value. All plants recorded were found in abundance, some during the time of the flood, others more towards its end.

The plants could be identified using Dy Phon’s Dictionary of plants used in Cambodia and the handbooks of the PROSEA series.

사용한 수집 방법

Farmers and fisher-folks of Kampong Thom Province use a wide variety of different implements and techniques to collect fishes and other aquatic organisms from the rice field ecosystem. In the course of this study, 26 techniques to catch fish have been recorded. They can be subdivided into four main categories:

Implements that catch fish with baited hooks: they are rather selective in the species caught with them since some species are more attracted to a certain kind of bait then others. Four different types can be distinguished here, two of which are used actively, the other two are attached to shrubs or sticks and checked at regular intervals.

Traps: these are usually less selective and apart from fish a variety of other aquatic animals like frogs, snakes, crabs and shrimps can be caught with them. Often made from woven bamboo the selectivity is defined by the distance between the bamboo strips. However, also traps for specific fish exist like the different eel traps. All together, six different types of traps can be distinguished.

Nets: like the traps, nets are little selective concerning the species caught; the main selectivity is given by the size of the mesh. Six different types of net were observed during the study. Also here a distinction can be made between nets used actively like a cast net and nets placed and left like the gill nets. It could be observed, that for the gill nets used in Roluos larger mesh sizes were preferred since in this area plenty of fish is still available. In areas further away from the flooded plains like Tboung Krapeu or Tuol Vihear smaller mesh sizes were employed to catch all but the smallest fish. In these areas, fishes are not as abundant as in the other areas and many juveniles have been seen in the catches, a clear indicator for over-use of the resource. Another particular problem is that old unusable gill nets are not collected and destroyed but left at their position in or near the water. They are a hazard to many water birds, which get caught and die in them.

Others: Here all techniques and implements that do not fit into the three categories above have been lumped together. They are usually characterized as active techniques such as digging, emptying depressions and catching fish with a spear or by hand.

An additional, illegal and very destructive, unfortunately by now widespread, technique has established during the last decade, the electro shock fishing. It is the least selective method of all, killing every organism wherever it is used. It is blamed along with the destruction of the flooded forest for the great reduction of the fish catches during the last years.

The implements used to catch aquatic animals can also be grouped according to their use in either shallow or deep water. They can thus also be assigned to periods of time when they are commonly used: a succession of different fishing tools could be observed along with the changing levels of the flood waters in the area.

Most of the implements used to catch fish are traditionally used either by men or women. The elder children, mostly the boys would already support their father in the use of typical male implements, smaller children and girls would accompany the mother in her collecting activities. While both men and women catch fish and crustaceans, plants, snails and insects are rather collected by women and children. Since reptiles and amphibians are typically caught with fish traps, men are the ones collecting them.

Some farmers have established ponds in or near their rice fields. These are not usually stocked actively with fish but the fish withdraw into them from the surrounding rice fields when those are drying up. Some farmers would also place small fish caught during the end of the flooding into their pond to allow them to grow bigger. Most farmers however do not have such a pond, some claim, that the soil in their area is not suitable, others explained that they cannot afford the time needed to dig such a pond deep enough to retain water throughout the year. They declared that if an organization would support them they would readily agree to have a pond.

전통지식과 관찰

People have accumulated over time a profound knowledge about fishes and their behavior. They have very accurate ideas about where what kind of fish can be found. A common observation is, that many fishes lay their eggs in the flooded forest or in the flooded shrubs surrounding their rice fields. The young fish then come to look for food in the rice fields and the flooded grasslands. once the trees and shrubs are gone in an area, the fishes are getting less.

It has been observed by the local people that the fish catches have been greatly reduced over the last two decades. Some fish species have disappeared all together. This is blamed partly on the increasing use of illegal fishing tools like electro shock but also on the destruction of the flooded forests surrounding Tonle Sap Lake. Also the increasing number of people living in the area is given as a reason for the smaller fish catches every year: more people have to share a resource that is getting less. And while the farmer fishermen of old caught fish mainly for home consumption nowadays a more market-oriented approach drives people to catch more fish for sale on the markets.

An average family of five persons would consume about one kilogram of fresh fish every day during the fishing season. The same family would need about 20 kg of Prahoc to eat in the dry season. Everything caught above this would be sold in the market. Depending on the fishing tool employed, a farmer-fisherman can catch 15 to 20 kg of fish on a good day. The average fish catch during the fishing season is less than 10 kg per day. For comparison: a commercial operator blocking - illegally - a medium sized river to the migrating fish can catch about twelve kilogram of fish in less then ten minutes.

Since the beginning of the 1990s a fish disease called Dambao is reported to occur every year with varying strength. Starting in January until March the fishes in the ponds and lakes start dying, smelling worse then ordinary dead fish. The people say that these fish cannot even be used to make Prahoc. The worst year when this disease has hit the area until now was in 1995 when most lakes were transformed into stinking pits. once the rains start, the disease disappears. The people claim, that the increasing use of fertilizer and pesticides in the receding rice cultivation is to blame for this phenomenon. Local people believe that on Buddhist prayer days many fish can be caught. Since Buddhist prayer days coincide with the phases of the moon, this is supported by another observation: fish like the moonlight, they are playful in moonlight and are easily caught with the gillnet at the time of the full moon. When rain is coming up however no fish can be caught. only when the rain starts falling the fish would come out of their hiding places.

During certain times of the day, very little fish is caught. Asked for the reason, a fisherman told that the fishes are now in the rice fields looking for food. They would come out later to play in the canal where they can be caught with the cast-net.

결론

The rice field ecosystem is of major importance for the supply not only of rice but also of protein and of vegetables for the local population. one-sided development towards increasing yields of rice through intensification and the use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides will give the people more rice to eat, but it will take them the fish and the vegetables to go along with. The introduction of fishponds stocked with introduced fishes, as a remedy against the loss of the naturally available fish is not likely to have great success at the sites where this study took place. It is at best difficult to maintain a fishpond during the flooding period when most of the area surrounding the great lake actually becomes part of it. And especially the poorest people living around the lake have to rely on wild capture fisheries since they do not have rice fields of their own - and thus also no land to establish an own fishpond.

A more promising approach seems to be a participatory development approach that addresses all the needs of the local people through locally developed natural resources management plans and a more holistic view of a system that has catered the needs of the people for many generations.

참고문헌

Ahmed et al. 1998. Socio economic assessment of freshwater capture fisheries of Cambodia. Report on a household survey, MRC/DANIDA/DoF. Management of the freshwater capture fisheries of Cambodia.

Ali. 1990. Some ecological aspects of fish population in tropical ricefields. Hydrobiologia, 190: 215-222.

Dy Phon. 2000. Dictionary of plants utilized in Cambodia. Imprimerie Olympic, Phnom Penh.

Gregory et al. 199?. Poor in all but fish. AIT Aquaculture working paper No. 4, Cambodia, Asian Institute of Technology, Bangkok.

Gum. 1997. Consultancy report on fisheries development in Northwest Cambodia, Cambodia Rehabilitation and Regeneration, CARERE UNDP/RGC.

Little et al. 1996. In Wild fish component of AIT Aqua Outreach. AIT Aquaculture Aquaculture Section, Asian Institute of Technology, 1998.

Rainboth. 1996. FAO species identification field guide for fishery purposes. Fishes of the Cambodian Mekong. FAO Rome.

Shams & Hong. 1998. Rice field ecosystem biodiversity - Resources and benefits. Deutsche Gesellschaft fuer technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ).

Spiller. 1985. Rice cum fish culture: Environmental aspects of rice and fish production in Asia. Report FAP/WP-15. FAO Office for Asia and the Pacific, Bangkok.

van Amerongen. 1999. The rice field crab - a short study on its role as a pest to rice culture. FAO Rome.