@農자료창고

한국에서는 쇠똥구리들이 멸종되었다고 들었습니다. 소들이 논과 밭, 외양간에서 축사로 내몰리고, 산과 들에는 각종 화학물질이 살포되면서 그렇게 되었다고 알고 있습니다. 

https://m.post.naver.com/viewer/postView.nhn...

한국의 들판에서 쇠똥구리를 다시 볼 수 있는 날이 올까요?

일본의 마을 산에서 나비와 반딧불이 급감

세계의 추세와 마찬가지

심해지는 '보통종'의 위기 

일본 자연보호협회가 사무국을 맡고 있는 전국의 마을 산 시민 조사"중요 생태계 감시지역 모니터링 추진사업(환경성 사업. 이하 '모니터링 사이트 1000개 지역 조사'라고 함)에서 2005-2017년도 전국의 약 200개소의 조사지에서 얻은 자료를 분석한 결과, 일본 마을 산에서 나비와 반딧불이 등 친근한 생물종의 대부분이 감소세이 있는 것으로 드러났다.

감소세가 나타난 종류에는 나비류나 반딧불류 등의 곤충류 외에 큰부리까마귀, 직박구리, 제비 등의 조류, 토끼나 담비 같은 포유류 등 매우 흔히 볼 수 있던 친근한 생물종 대부분이 포함되어 있다.

특히 나비류는 평가대상 종(87종) 가운데 약 40%(34종)가 조사대상으로 삼은 지역에서 멸종위기 판정 기준의 하나인 감소율(10년 기준 30% 감소)에 해당할 만큼 급감하고 있다는 가능성이 시사되었다.

이 가운데 왕오색나비와 산제비나비(멸종위기ⅠA류의 감소율 기준에 해당), 큰멋쟁이나비와 흑백알락나비(멸종위기ⅠB류의 감소율 기준에 해당), 굴뚝나비와 한줄나비(멸종위기 Ⅱ류의 감소율 기준에 해당) 등이 포함되는데, 이들 대부분은 최신 환경성 위험목록에 게재되지 않은 '보통종'이었다. 이들 종의 대부분은 마을 산을 주요 서식지로 삼기 때문에, 이대로 계속 감소되면 앞으로 멸종위기종으로 판정될 가능성이 있다. 

일본의 마을 산은 국토의 약 40%를 차지하는 중요한 생태계인데, 사유지가 많기 때문에 전국 규모의 조사를 실시해 그 전모를 파악하기 어려웠다(환경부, 2009). 이 조사에서는 각 지역의 시민 조사원이 주체가 되어 조사를실시해, 전국 약 200개소 마을 산의 관측 네트워크를 구축하고 전국의 마을 산 생태계의 현황을 밝힐 수 있었다.

이 결과는 2019년 11월 12일 발행된 <2005-2017년도 정리 보고서(이하 정리보고서)>에 들어간다.

세계의 추세와도 일치

2018년 10월에 발표된 WWF의 Living Planet Report 2018에서 "지난 40년 동안 야생 생물의 개체수가 60% 감소"했다고 보고되고, 올해 5월에는 국제기구 IPBES(생물다양성 및 생태계 서비스에 관한 정부간 과학정책 플랫폼)에 의하여 "100만 종이 멸종위기"라는 충격적인 메시지가 발표되었다(WWF, 2018; IPBES, 2019).

또 올해 1월 호주 시드니 대학 등의 연구진은 전문지 <Biological Conservation>에 나비와 딱정벌레 등 세계의 곤충 종 가운데 40%가 급감하고 있다는 조사 결과를 발표했다(Sanchez and Wyckhuys, 2019). 이번 조사를 통해 이러한 세계적 추세에 일본도 예외가 아니라는 것이 밝혀졌다.

마을 산의 환경 변화가 한 요인?

한편, 전국의 조사지역에 대해 실시한 설문조사 결과에서 "관리되지 않고 버려진 마을 산"이 대부분을 차지하는 것으로 나타나고, 특히 2차림(회답된 조사지 가운데 90%. 이하 동일), 인공림과 저수지, 논(70%)이 버려진 것이 뚜렷했다. 마을 산 조사지는 마을 산의 관리와 이용이 중지되어 식생 천이가 진행되거나, 개발에 의해 분단화가 진행되는 등 마을 산의 환경 변화가 진행되고 있었다. 이러한 마을 산의 환경 변화가 위에 이야기한 '마을 산 보통종의 감소'와 관련되어 있을 가능성이 있다.

외래종과 대형 포유류가 분포 확대

덧붙여, 마을 산 생태계에 영향을 미치는 미국 너구리, 흰눈썹웃음지빠귀 등 외래종이나 최근 개체수가 증가해 생태계에 미치는 영향이 우려되는 대형 포유류인 멧돼지와 사슴 등은 기록 개체수의 증가와 분포 확대가 확인되었다. 조사지에서 미국 너구리가 침입한 뒤 토종 송장개구리의 산란 수가 감소하고, 포획함정을 설치한 뒤 회복된 사례도 있기 때문에 앞으로도 토종 생태계에 미치는 영향을 파악해야 한다.

자발적인 시민의 보전 활동

또한 전국의 조사지에서는 시민에 의한 자료 활용과 마을 산 보전활동이 활발히 이루어져, 그러한 활동 사례의 수는 매년 증가하고 있는 것으로 밝혀졌다. 회답된 조사지 가운데 약 40%의 조사지에서 자원봉사에 의해 논과 2차림, 초원 등의 관리가 이루어지고 있으며, 조사활동 이외의 보전활동과 보급교육활동 등 모니터링만이 아니라 다양한 활동이 실시되고 있었다. 실제로 시민에 의한 논이나 습지의 보전 재생 활동을 통해 논을 이용하는 송장개구리 류의 개체수가 회복되었다고 확인된 조사지도 있었다. 이와 같은 시민에 의한 자주적인 보전활동이 각 조사지의 생물다양성의 보전에 공헌하고 있다는 사실을 시사했다.

앞으로의 과제와 제안

친근한 생물다양성의 급속한 감소세를 막기 위해서는 그 원인을 밝히는 동시에, 종의 지역 멸종 같은 돌이킬 수 없는 변화를 미연에 방지하기 위한 노력이 필요하다. 그를 위해서는 기존과 같이 자원봉사에 의한 마을 산 보전 활동 이외에 마을 산 환경의 지속가능한 활용 등 새로운 대책도 포함해, 시민과 행정, 비영리단체 등 모든 관계자가 연대해 마을 산 보전의 노력을 강화해 나아가야 한다.

  - 이 정리보고서에서는 파악하기 어려운 보통종도 포함해 마을 산에 서식하는 다양한 생물종의 증감 추세 등을 처음으로 밝혔다. 이 조사의 의의와 가능성은 크며, 조사에 대한 지속적인 투자가 앞으로도 필요하다.

  - 또한 지역의 시민이 주체가 되어 시민 스스로 얻은 조사 자료를 활용하고, 조사결과에 기반한 마을 산 보전 관리 활동과 지역에 뿌리를 내린 보급활동 등을 전개하고 있다. 이러한 국가와 지역의 시민, 비영리단체가 연대한 노력의 중요성이 사회적으로 인지되고, 지속적인 모니터링 체제가 구축되어야 한다. 

  - 이 조사는 장기적인 모니터링을 목적으로 한 조사 설계를 위해, 이번에 밝혀진 다양한 생물종의 증감과 그에 영향을 미칠 수 있는 요인 등을 충분히 해명했다고 할 수 없다. 효과적인 생물다양성의 보전을 위해서는 생물종의 증감에 영향을 미치는 요인과 보전대책 등의 실시상황을 파악하고, 그들의 상호 인과관계를 해명해 나아가는 것이 중요하다. 그를 위해서 이 조사 자료를 기반으로 한 새로운 연구가 확충되어야 한다.

  - 이 조사 결과는 일본의 마을 산에 서식하는 생물종의 상황을 파악하는 귀중한 지식이며, 생물다양성 국가 전략 2012-2020년과 일본 아이치 목표의 달성도 평가, 기후변화 적응 계획 등의 정책 평가나 포스트 아이치 목표에 기초해 작성되는 차기 생물다양성 국가 전략과 생물다양성 국별 보고서에서 충분히 활용하는 것이 중요하다.

  - 마을 산 조사의 조사지는 보전을 위한 활동이 활발히 이루어지는 장소임에도 불구하고, 다양한 생물종의 감소가 나타나는 등 전반적으로 생물다양성이 명료하게 개선되는 모습이 보이지 않았다. 또한 설문조사 결과, 관리되지 않는 장소를 포함하는 조사지가 대부분을 차지하는 것이나, 과거 5년간 1/4의 조사지에서 개발 행위로 인한 생식 및 서식지의 파괴가 발생했다. 관리 포기 등의 진행을 멈추고, 마을 산에 사는 생물종의 서식지를 보전해 가기 위해 많은 관계자가 연대, 협력하고, 현대적인 새로운 마을 산 환경의 지속가능한 활용 방식을 창출하는 것이 중요하다.

  - 조사지에서는 모니터링 이외에도 보급교육활동과 산림자원의 이용 등 다양한 활동이 실시되고 있었지만, 그 활동을 지원하는 보조금과 보조금을 받고 있는 조사지는 전체의 약 10%밖에 존재하지 않았다. 기존 농지 등의 환경보전에 대한 보조금 제도가 활용되고 있지 않은 원인을 파악하고, 각지의 보전활동을 활성화시키는 사회적 구조 개선이 필요하다. 

https://www.nacsj.or.jp/media/2019/11/17887/

https://www.nacsj.or.jp/official/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/20191112_Moni1000-5yearsReport.pdf

인간의 육종으로 그야말로 엄청나게 변한 작물 가운데 하나로 바나나를 꼽을 수 있다.

지금은 비록 그 결과로 인해 멸종의 위기에 처해 있지만 말이다.

야생의 바나나는 꼭 으름처럼 생겼다.

상당히 시사하는 바가 큰 논문이 발표되었다.

요즘 시중에 이른바 총알오징어 라는 것이 팔리는가 본데...

이게 오징어의 새끼라고 한다.

그러니까 총알오징어 많이 잡아서 많이 먹으면 그만큼 오징어의 개체수는 급감한다는 소리, 즉 어족자원의 소멸을 가져올 수 있단다.

상인들은 당장 돈벌이가 되니까 홍보하고 판매하는가 본다. 제 살 깎아먹기라는 걸 알면서 저럴까? 그냥 돈만 벌면 되는 사람들이라 상관이 없나?

http://slds2.tistory.com/3100

These Madagascar bananas could be next.

During harvest last year, banana farmers in Jordan and Mozambique made a chilling discovery. Their plants were no longer bearing the soft, creamy fruits they’d been growing for decades. When they cut open the roots of their banana plants, they saw something that looked like this:

A banana plant ravaged by Tropical Race 4.

Scientists first discovered the fungus that is turning banana plants into this rotting, fibrous mass in Southeast Asia in the 1990s. Since then the pathogen, known as the Tropical Race 4 strain of Panama disease, has slowly but steadily ravaged export crops throughout Asia. The fact that this vicious soil-borne fungus has now made the leap to Mozambique and Jordan is frightening. One reason is that it’s getting closer to Latin America, where at least 70% of the world’s $8.9-billion-a-year worth of exported bananas is grown. 

Randy Ploetz, professor of plant pathology at University of Florida who discovered Tropical Race 4, says it may already be in Latin America. “The story on the Mozambique situation was that workers brought over to establish the plantations—some of them were from Latin America,” he says. “And this is an insidious disease in that it can move… by soil-contaminated machinery, tools—that kind of thing.” 

Chiquita, the $548-million fruit giant with the world’s largest banana market share, is downplaying the risk. “It’s certainly not an immediate threat to banana production in Latin America [where Chiquita's crops are],” Ed Lloyd, spokesman for Chiquita, told the Charlotte Business Journal in late December, explaining that the company is using a “risk-mitigation program” to approach the potential spread. 

Even if it takes longer to arrive, the broader ravaging of the commercial banana appears inevitable. And we don’t need to imagine what that would mean for banana exports—the exact scenario has already happened. Starting in 1903, Race 1, an earlier variant of today’s pathogen, ravaged the export plantations of Latin America and the Caribbean. Within 50 years, Race 1 drove the world’s only export banana species, the Gros Michel, to virtual extinction. That’s why 99% of the bananas eaten in the developed world today are a cultivar called the Cavendish, the only export-suitable banana that could take on Race 1 and live to tell. 

Over the half-century it took to wipe out the Gros Michel, Race 1 caused at least$2.3 billion in damage (around $18.2 billion in today’s terms.) And that was in the commercial heart of global banana production. Tropical Race 4, by comparison, has damaged $400 million in banana crops in the Philippines alone. 

But the bigger difference now is that, compared its 20th-century cousin, Tropical Race 4 is a pure killing machine—and not just for Cavendishes. Scores of other species that are immune to Race 1 have no defenses against the new pathogen. In fact, Tropical Race 4 is capable of killing at least 80%—though possibly as much as 85%—of the 145 million tonnes (160 million tons) of bananas and plantains produced each year, says Ploetz.

And at $8.9 billion, bananas grown for export are only a fraction of the $44.1 billion in annual banana and plantain production—in fact, bananas are the fourth-most valuable global crop after rice, wheat, and milk. Where are the rest of those bananas sold? Nearly nine-tenths of the world’s bananas are eaten in poor countries, where at least 400 million people rely on them for 15-27% of their daily calories. And that’s the really scary part. Since the first Panama disease outbreak, bananas have evolved from snacks into vital sustenance. And this time there’s no back-up banana variety to feed the world with instead.

+++++

Tropical Race 4′s global reach. Note that while Race 1 is in many more places, far fewer banana varieties are susceptible.Banana Research

Meet the Cavendish: the world’s multi-billion-dollar banana

Quick—think of a banana. Chances are good that, you’re imagining something closer to what’s on the right, and not the left:

On the left, Musa velutina, on the right the Cavendish.Left image by Flickr user Wendy Cutler; right image by 24oranges.nl.

That iconic yellow one is a Cavendish. Americans love it so much that they buy more bananas than apples and oranges combined. It might be the most famous, but Cavendishes make up less than half of the bananas grown around the world. The fuzzy, stubby pink bunch on the left—a Musa velutina—is an example of the incredibly diverse range of banana species that grow around the world.

Native to Assam, India, Musa velutinas are much softer and sweeter than Cavendishes. So why don’t we see Musa velutinas—or other species—in developed world supermarkets? Quality control is one; since they reproduce, the Musa velutinas vary in size and shape. Plus, the pink fruit’s hard seeds can nick a filling. And they’re not as “productive” as Cavendishes—meaning, they produce less volume of fruit per plant. Cavendishes also take a long time to ripen and have tough exteriors, which allow them to travel far without going bad or getting banged up along the way.

These Philippines bananas don’t look much like the Cavendish.

In the same way that the Cavendish gets all the fame, brand names like Chiquita and Dole dominate the popular conception of the banana market. But exports make up only 15% of global output; the rest is consumed by banana-producing nations or sold unofficially in regional markets. In fact, the top two banana and plantain producers—India and China—don’t export at all, though they produce a combined 35% of the global yield.

The developed world prizes bananas as a food of convenience—it’s cheap, portable and reasonably healthy. In poor countries, however, bananas are often a basic source of nourishment for at least 400 million people. The average person in Uganda, Gabon, Ghana and Rwanda relies on bananas and plantains for more than 300 calories each day—around 16% of the UN’s nourishment threshold (and bear in mind that around 20% of the 74 million people living in those four countries are undernourished). Roughly 70% of all bananas consumed locally are vulnerable to Tropical Race 4.

And while millions of farmers feed their families with home-grown bananas, many millions more use income from growing them to buy other crops.Bananas are the most important export commodity for Ecuador, Panama, Costa Rica, and Belize. They’re in the top three in Colombia, the Philippines, Guatemala, Honduras, and Cameroon. That’s a lot of the developing-world economy reliant on a very vulnerable crop. “This disease is a problem, not only because of its potential impact on the price and availability of our favorite fruit, but also because it’s a life-changing event for the people in developing countries who rely on bananas as a staple food and incomes,” Alice Churchill, a scientist studying plant biology at Cornell University, told the Cornell Sun, “Those affected by [Panama disease] lose both their livelihoods and an important source of nutrition.”

The deadliest disease the banana world’s ever seen

Panama disease is so virulent that some call it the “HIV of banana plantations” (paywall). Here’s why it’s so lethal:

• It strikes from inside the plant. The yellowing leaves are often the first thing farmers notice. That happens because Tropical Race 4 creeps into a banana plant’s roots, spreading up its vascular system and strangling the supply of water and nutrients. As the banana plant’s leaves wilt, it becomes harder and harder to conduct photosynthesis, leaving its fruits stunted. Eventually the plant simply dies.
• Nothing can kill it. There are other big, bad banana-killers out there. Some, like Black Sigatoka and burrowing nematode worms, sound as nasty as they are (some, like a nefarious Asian virus called Bunchy Top, don’t.) But spray all of those with enough chemicals and they back off. Not so with Panama disease. once a plantation has it, nothing gets rid of it.
• It’s stealthy. The thing clings to shoes, equipment, luggage, or whatever else touches contaminated dirt, making it incredibly contagious. All it takes is one clump of soil to spread Tropical Race 4.
• It plays a long game. Dead plants leave behind spores, allowing the fungus to lie dormant in the ground for decades in wait for new crops to blight.
• It’s confusing. The one proven prophylactic is rigorous quarantine, which Australia has implemented to good effect. A big worry with Latin America at the moment is that, because Tropical Race 4 causes symptoms that look like the old kinds of Panama disease—Race 1 and 2, which are still present in Latin America—farmers might not realize their crops are infected until it’s too late to quarantine, says University of Florida’s Ploetz.
• And Tropical Race 4 is way deadlier than Race 1. When Race 1 wiped out the Gros Michel, the volume of other banana species also susceptible was small. How things have changed. As much as 85% of global banana output is vulnerable to Tropical Race 4.

Tropical Race 4′s route to domination."Fusarium Wilt of Bananas (Panama Disease),"

Before the Cavendish, there was Big Mike

The knitting of our fate with that of Tropical Race 4 began more than a century ago, with a banana far tastier than any most Quartz readers have ever had. While its famously creamy flavor made the Gros Michel—or “Big Mike”—a big hit around the Caribbean among small-time farmers, its tough, thick skin and its high yield are what landed this cultivar in cereal bowls and lunch bags far beyond the tropics.

Like all domesticated bananas, the vast majority of Gros Michel didn’t carry seeds. So how did they reproduce? You simply would cut off a chunk of a banana tree, plant it, and wait for your banana tree to sprout. In other words, the bananas eaten commercially are all clones.

Those qualities also gave rise of the industrialization of banana-growing, as they allowed scrappy American entrepreneurs to construct banana empires throughout Latin American rainforests, often building railroads to ports in exchange for long-term land rights. These banana barons pioneered the industrial agriculture model familiar today, maximizing land, minimizing labor, and vertically integrating in order to send their product far and wide.

The docks of the United Fruit company in Honduras, 1954.

That let them sell Big Mikes for cheap—an important development given that in 1899, the fruit was still found mainly in posh hotels, where it often was accompanied with instructions on how to peel it. That next year, Americans ate around 15 million bunches of bananas. Within a decade that had surged to 40 million, making them more popular than apples and oranges, as Dan Koeppel documents in his book, Banana: The Fate of the Fruit That Changed the World.At a time when apples and oranges were prohibitively expensive to most Americans, the banana was marketed for mass consumption. United Fruit successfully styled it as the fruit of the common man, its popularity reflected in the slapstick ubiquity of slipping on banana peels found in the films of Buster Keaton, Charlie Chaplin, and other comedians, as Koeppel points out.

From there, United Fruit ramped up marketing to further the banana’s American conquest, hiring doctors to endorse mashed bananas as baby food and setting up a “home economics department” to get images of bananas in front of housewives and in textbooks. After its test kitchens struck upon the idea of the banana as the perfect breakfast on the go, the company began offering coupons on cereal boxes, linking bananas and breakfast cereal for the first time, writes Koeppel.

United Fruit marketing from the 1950s ingeniously targeted housewives and children. The image on the left appeared in Ladies Home Journal.Flickr user jbcurio on the left; Flickr user Phil Beard on the right (images have been cropped)

To ramp up production while preserving its margins, United Fruit began burnishing its famously bloody reputation for union-busting. (A 1928 crackdown on striking United Fruit workers in Colombia inspired the massacre in Gabriel García Márquez’s novel, One Hundred Years of Solitude). The strategic importance of the crop meant that the troops of both Latin American dictatorships—the namesake of “banana republics”—and the US government often enforced United Fruit’s will on unruly workers.

The twilight of the Gros Michel

However, in 1903, United Fruit encountered an enemy that all the military interventions in the world couldn’t stop. It first showed up in Panama—a blight that wilted leaves and infected fruits until the entire plant toppled over and died, usually before it could bear any fruit. once it appeared, it laid waste to a region’s plantations, usually at a gradual pace, but sometimes with devastating speed. It needed only five years to wipe out all of Suriname’s banana plantations.

Why was Panama disease unstoppable?

In the Gros Michel’s rise and fall, the banana industry struggled with the paradox that plagues all industrial agriculture crops. Natural reproduction is bad for short-term profits. The way to grow a consistent product at yields that achieve economies of scale is to stamp out the risks of diversity and imperfection that happens when genes reshuffle. To boost profit, you then grow that crop to the exclusion of less valuable species.

An eviction of Irish farmers during the potato famine of 1847-1850.

Another notorious monoculture disaster: the Irish Potato Famine

No episode in history illustrates this cost more nightmarishly than the Irish potato blight, “the biggest experiment in monoculture ever attempted and surely the most convincing proof of its folly,” as journalist Michael Pollan called it in his book Botany of Desire.

Bananas for sale in Cuba.

So why was there no Latin American Banana Famine?

Panama disease’s scorched earth campaign was briefly terrible for United Fruit and for many Latin American economies. It was frustrating enough for US consumers to have inspired the song “Yes, We Have No Bananas.” But a tropical reprise of the Irish potato famine it wasn’t.

t might have tasted blander, but the Cavendish is way more productive than the Gros Michel."The Role of Demand in the Historical Development of the Banana Market," Marcelo Bucheli

How did Tropical Race 4 get to be so much deadlier than Race 1?

While United Fruit and Standard Fruit—which soon morphed into Chiquita and Dole, respectively—and other banana giants built booming businesses around Cavendish clones, Panama disease was busy too. The banana industry then did the fungus a huge favor: In the 1980s it launched huge Cavendish plantations in Malaysia, one of the ancient cradles of banana civilization. That’s where University of Florida’s Ploetz thinks Panama disease originally came from.

A fruit market in Lahore.

Tropical Race 4 and a global banana famine

All this might seem alarmist, particularly given how slowly Panama disease typically spreads. Big Banana, for one, would agree with that. “This is something that this industry has dealt with for decades,” said Chiquita’s Ed Lloyd. “It’s not a ‘sky is falling’ sort of situation.”

And while Chiquita and other big banana multinationals shrug off its threat to Latin America, it doesn’t sound like they’re taking into account the possibilities that Ploetz flags, such as the Latin American farmers setting up plantations in the affected Mozambique area. Did they scrub their shoes well enough? Time will tell.

Though the banana panic won’t hit tomorrow, the nature of Tropical Race 4 and the fact that scientists haven’t yet found a viable back-up banana to sub in for the Cavendish means an eventual production collapse is inevitable.

What might that look like? In the crude terms that Pollan invoked with the Irish potato famine, the population that owes much of its survival to cheap, productive banana plants is the one that will shoulder the impact when those plants die. If the same huge numbers of the banana-eating global population are going to stay fed, the only viable solution at the moment may be genetic modification. On that front, there are promising signs, though still nothing to take to the bank. While some find the genetically modified alternative objectionable, it’s hard to argue against modifying an already pretty heavily genetically tweaked fruit given the scale of malnourishment or perhaps even starvation, if that’s what it comes down to.

But the GMO lightning rod distracts from the larger cautionary tale: Our reliance on monoculture to feed surging global populations is catching up with us. International agricultural organizations are already scrambling to find new scourge-resistant substitutes for things like rice and potatoes. In fact, so dire are other global agricultural problems that Tropical Race 4′s onslaught doesn’t even get bananas near the top of priority list. “Getting support to develop new resistant bananas is really tough—there are already so many demands on the international agricultural community,” says Ploetz. “There’s a lot of hunger in the world and bananas just have to get in line behind all those other big problems.”

http://qz.com/164029/tropical-race-4-global-banana-industry-is-killing-the-worlds-favorite-fruit/#/h/50988,1,2,3/

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